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STUDIES IN THE

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

STUDIES IN

THE GEOGRAPHY OF
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

T>. G. SIRCAR

Carmichael Professor and Head of the Department of Ancient
Indian History and Culture, University of Calcutta

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Dedicated to

the Memory of my Teacher
the Late Prof. H. G« Raychaudhuri
to whom I owe my Interest in the
Study of Ancient Indian Geography

PREFACE

It is a pleasure to me that my Studies in the Geograpf^ of
Ancient and Medieval India (1960), in spite of its defects, was
favourably received by the students of the subject, so that its
first edition was exhausted much earlier than was expected.

A decade has now elapsed after the appearance of the
first edition of the work, in which about 30 articles were pre-
sented in 22 Chapters and 2 Appendices. The number of my
articles on geographical topics published during this period is
about a dozen and a half. Most of these have been either in-
corporated in the old Chapters or presented in new Chapters.
The old arrangement has also been altered in a few cases. In
the present edition, about 45 articles have been presented in 29
Chapters. As in the earlier edition, sometimes more papers
than one have been clubbed together for the facility of presen-
tation, and a few articles have been omitted. Among the omis-
sions, mention may be made of 'Capital of the Later Aulikaras’
{Indian Historical Quarterly^ Vol. XXXVI, June-September,
1960, pp. 192 ff. ) and 'Mahi-sagara-sahgama’ (i.e. the tirtha
at the confluence of the Mahi and the Gulf of Cambay ; Purd^a^
VoL VI, No- 1, January 1964, pp. 215 ff. ). I am grateful to
the authorities of the publications, in which the various articles
of mine originally appeared.

The sources of the papers incorporated in the different
Chapters of the present edition are indicated below.

I — Sarupa Bhdratz (Lakshman Sarup Commemoration
Volume), Hoshiarpur, 1954, pp. 315 ff. ; cf. Journal
of the XRoyal^ Asiatic Society X of Bengalis Calcutta,
Letters, Vol, V, 1939, pp. 407 ff.

II — Journal of Indian History:, Trivandrum, Vol, XLVI,
Part I, April, 1968, pp. 19 ff.; Indian Culture^ Calcutta,
Vol. VII, 1940, p. 111.

HI — Indian Historical ^Quarterly Calcutta, Vol. XXI, 1945,
pp, 297 ff.

XV— Ibid., Vol. XXVII, 1951, pp. 215 ff.

V — Indian Culture, Vol. VIII, 1941, pp. 32 ff.

( viii )

VI — Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXVIII, 1952, pp.
123 ff. ; cf. Hindusthan Review, Patna, May-June, 1041,
pp. 617 ff.

VII — Bharatiya Vidya, Bombay, Vol. V, 1944, pp. 34 ff. ;
Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXIII, 1947, pp.
62 ff. ; Indian Studies Past and Present, Calcutta, Vol.
Ill, No. 3, April-June, 1962, pp. 355 ff.

VIII — Indian Museum Bulletin, Calcutta, Vol. II, No. 1,
January, 1967, pp. 7 ff. ; Journal of the Asiatic Society,
Letters, Vol. XTX, 1953, pp. 33 ff.

IX — Journal of Indian History, Vol. XLI (Silver Jubilee
Number), 1963, pp. 263 ff.

X~Ibid., Vol. XXXIV, 1956, pp. 263 ff. (cf. Orissa
Historical Research Journal, Bhubaneswar, Vol. IV,
Nos. 3-4, 1955-56, pp. 51 ff. ); Journal of the Oriental
Institute, Baroda, Vol. XIII, No. 4, June, 1964, pp.
329 ff-

XI — Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXI, 1945, pp. 61
f.; Vol. XXII, 1946, pp. 233 ff.; Vol. XXIII,

1947, pp. 65 ff.; Vol. XXIV, 1948, pp. 78 f.; Actes
du Congres International Oriental, Tome XXI, Paris,

1948, pp. 199 ff.

XII — Purana, Varanasi, Vol. V, No. 2, July, 1963, pp.
251 ff. ; cf. Vol. VI, No. 1, January, 1964, pp. 215
ff.; Itikdsa (Bengali), New Series, Vol. I, No. 3,
Xarttika-Pausa, 1373 B.S., pp. 235 ff. (cf. Journal of
Ancient Indian History, Calcutta, Vol. I, 1967-68, pp.
196-97); Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. XXV, pp. 1 ff.

XIII — Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Bombay,
1947, pp. 91 ff.

XrV — Journal of Indian History, Vol. XLIII, Part 3, Decem-
ber, 1965, pp. 693 ff. ; also Part 2, August, 1965,
pp. 343 ff-

XV — P. V . Kane Presentation Volume, Poona Oriental Series,
Poona, 1941, pp. 469 ff.; Journal of the Kundsmatic
Society of India, Varanasi, Vol. VIII, 1946, pp.
135 ff.

XVI — Indian Historical Qjiarterly, Vol. XXII, 1946, p.
315; Vol. XXIV, 1948, p. 78; Journal of the Mumis-
matic Society of India, VoL XII, 1950, pp. 50ff.

( « )

XVII — Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXVI, 1950, pp.

291 ff.; Bharatiya Vidya, Vols. XX-XXI (Mumlii
Indological Felicitation Volume), 1963, pp. 274flF.

XVIII — Journal of the Bihar R^earch Society, Patna, Vol. XL,
Part I, 1954, pp. 8 ff.

XIX — Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society,
R^ahmundry, Vol. IX, Part 3, 1935, pp. 1 flF.

'KX.— Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXI, 1945, pp. 56ff.

-KKA—Joumal of Indian Histoiy,Vol.'KKXll, 1954, pp. 283ff.

XXII — Siddha Bhdrati (Siddheshwar Varma Presentation
Volume), Hoshiarpur, 1950, pp. 291 fF.

XXIII — Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXXVI, 1960, pp.

194ff.; Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. XI, 1950, pp. 183 ff.

XXTV — Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. VI, 1945, pp. 123 ff.; also p. 240.

XXV — Acdrya Bkiksu Smrti Grantha, I. J. Terapanthi Mahasa>
bha, Calcutta, 1961, pp. 27 f.; Journal of Indicm
History, Vol. XXXVII, 1959, pp. 407ff.

XXVI — Calcutta Review, New Series, Vol, I, No. I, July-
September, 1969, pp. 69 f. ; see also Journal of Ancient
Indian, History, Vol. I, 1967-68, p. 203.

XXVII — Indials Contribution to World Thought and Culture
(Vivekananda Commemoration Volume), edited
by Lokesh Chandra and others, Madras, 1970, pp.
41ff.

XXVIII — Indian Archives, New Delhi, Vol. V, 1951, pp. 60 ff,

XXIX — The Bhakti Cult and Ancient Indian Geography, edited by
Sircar, Calcutta University, 1970, pp. 160 ff.

645, New Alipore, Calcutta-53,
May 1, 1971.

D. C. SIRCAR

EXTRACT FROM THE FOREWORD OF THE FIRST

EDITION

Out of the papers I have published in various periodicals,
a fairly large number deal with problems relating to the geog-
raphy of ancient and medieval India. Since some of these were
prescribed by a few universities for the post-graduate students
in the Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture, my
friends were pressing me for a long time to publish the impor-
"tant among my geographical studies in the form of a mono-
graph so that they might be easily available to the students of
the subject- The present volume is the outcome of that request.
My thanks are due to the celebrated publishers, Messrs.
Motilal Banarsidass, who kindly offered to undertake the
publication of the book.

A few of my' geographical studies have been excluded from
the volume for particular reasons. A notable omission is the
Sakta PithcLs which is a religio-geographical study originally
published in tkio Journal of the IRoyal"} Asiatic Society \^o£ Bengal'\y
Letters, VoL XIV, 1948, pp. 1-108. It has been excluded
because it is a rather lengthy dissertation and also because copies
are available in the market.

Mamy of the Chapters of the present volume were pub-
lished as independent discussions of particular topics. But,
in some of them, more than one article have been brought
together. This is particularly the case when different aspects
of a problem were discussed on different occasions, especially
in the course of controversies. In a few cases, discussions on
more problems than one have also been clubbed together for
the sake of facility of presentation. Thus about 30 articles,
published during the period of about quarter of a century since
1935, have been presented in the book in the twenty-two
Chapters and two Appendices.

CONTENTS

Chapters

I. Cakravarti-ksetra 1

II. Catur-dvipa and Sapta-dvipa Vasumati 17

III, Pu.ran£c List of Peoples 26

IV. Puranic List of Rivers 48

V. Account of Fifty-six Countries 75

VI. Cauda 118

VII. Vanga and Vangala 131

VIII. Samatata 149

IX. Pragjyotisa 159

X. Odi^a ' 167

XI. Oasarna, Asmaka and Kuntala 185

XII. Kamboja, PancaJa and Malava 195

Xm. Ganga and the Gangaridae 213

XIV. Ariaka, Alasanda and Barbara 225

XV. Vahlika, Vahika and Gurjara 236

XVI. Malaya and Mahisa 243

XVII. Krraila ' 248

XVIII. Gaurasi 256

. XIX. Gonarda 264

XX. Kokamukha 275

XXI. Gaya 282

XXII. Udabhanda 289

XXIII. Tarkari, Sravasti and Dhaka 294

XXIV. Kalapriya and Brahmasila 303

XXV. Kakandinagari and ELaindharapura 308

XXVI. ELapilavastu and Tamrarastra 313

XXVII. Identical Names of Different Localities 318

XXVIII. Cartography 326

XXIX. The Eight Elephant Forests 331

Index 343

Addenda et Corrigenda 399

Chapter I

CAKRAVARTI-KSETRA

1. A Hyperbolic and Conventional Element in the Description of
Indian Rulers,

It is well known that the poets at the courts of medieval
Indian rollers often grossly exaggerated the achievements and
status of their patrons. Sometimes even a small landlord
enjoying the right of collecting taxes from a few villages only
was endowed with epithets befitting an emperor. Thus several
manuscripts copied about the beginning of the 18 th century
for Rajanarayana^ the insignificant zamindar of Klasijoda in
the Midnapur district. West Bengal, represent the landlord as
^o^-5r^^-5raTt:r-T?jr, 5rar^Md'imn-=Jd<Mifw<i'>i and
To illustrate the tendency to exaggerate in the court poets
of the early medieval kings of India, one may refer to the
description of Gandella I>hanga (c. 950-1002 A. I>. ) in an
inscription from Khajuraho.^

It is implied that the Gandella king crushed the rulers
of Kanci, Andhra, Radha and Anga and had the queens of the
defeated monarchs imprisoned in his capital. The claim is,
however, absurd on the face of it* In the first place, it is extreme-
ly doubtful whether Dhanga at all came into conflict with the
four kings mentioned, even if we take the rulers of Ahga and
Radha to have been merely viceroys of the mighty Pala emperor
of Eastern India. Secondly, if Dhanga actually came into con-

1. Gf. Vangfya Sdkitya Parisat Patrikd^ Vol. LVIII, pp. 17-18.
Raja ICrsnacandra of Nadia is described as bhup-aughSrcita-carana^
vrnda-sevita, etc. (K.. G. Ray, Ksifisavarhsavaltcarita^ pp. 227 ff.).

2. £!p. Ind,y Vol. I, p. 145, verse 46 :

Similarly

k^dpati-

geography of ancient and medieval. INDIA

jflict with the above-mentioned kings, it is more doubtful that
he came off victorious in all the four cases. Thirdly, even if
he may have succeeded in defeating the four kings, it is really
impossible to think that he succeeded also in carrying off their
wives. Fourthly, supposing that he actually captured the queens
of Kahcl, Andhra, Radha and Ahga, he would have naturally
placed them in his own harem instead of his prison.

It may, however, be admitted that such hopeless exaggera-
tion is less noticeable in the description of the Indian rulers of
the earlier period of history. For this reason, the earlier the
king is, the greater is our reliance in his claims, in spite of the
obvious fact that there is always a considerable amount of exag-
geration in the royal praiastis composed by the court poets of
Indian monarchs. But definite statements such as the mention
of the personal names of adversaries are generally more trust-
worthy than vague claims. Whatever be the nature of exaggera-
tion, there is certainly an amount of truth in the claims put for-
ward in such records as the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samu-
dragupta and the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendracola I.^
Although exaggeration with reference to the achievements
of Indian kings is a remarkable feature of royal praSastis of the
medieval period, it is by no means absent even in the earliest
records, both literary and epigraphic. There are the following
two gat has in the Satapatha Brdhmana^ XIII. 5. 4. 11 and 13 :

( 1 )

I (2) 5T

fd I According to the first
gdthdy Bharata, son of Dusyanta,^ performed seventyeight
A^vamedhas on the Yamuna and fiftyfive on the Ganga, i.e.
one hundred and thirtyfive horse-sacrifices in all. But according
to the second gdtkd^ Bharata celebrated more than one thousand
Asvamedhas after having conquered the whole earth- Critics
can hardly fail to note the difference between the definite nature
of the statements in the iixstgdthd and the vagueness of the number
‘more than one thousand’ and of the expression "after having con-
querred the whole earth’ in the second gdthd*

1, Selectlmcriptions^ 1 ^ 4 : 2 , pp.254fr,; Ep.lnd., VoL IX, pp. 229 ff.

2. is an older form of Dusyanta.

cakravarti-ksetra

In connection with the tradition regarding Bharata’s con-
quest of the whole earth, attention may be drawn to the Puranic
legends according to which the dominions of Bharata and his
descendants, the Bharatas, extended over that tract in the south
of Jambu-dvipa, which later came to be called Bharata- varfea
after that monarch-^ Again, the great Maurya emperor As oka
(c. 272-23.2 B.G.) claims in the Dhauli version of his Fifth Rock
Edict to have employed the Superintendents of the Religious
Department, called DhaiTna-mahamatra, throughout the earth
{sava-puthaviyarn)^ although all the other versions of the above
Rock Edict read sarvatra vijite (i.e. everywhere in the dominions
of As oka) in that context. ^ It is interesting to note in this
connection that Asoka’s Minor Rock Edict I seems to refer to
his empire as Jambu-dvipa while he is described in Buddhist
tradition as a Dvipa-cakravartiriy i.e, the ruler of the entix*e Jam-
bu-dvipa.^ As is well knowm, Asoka’s empire included
India with the exception of Assamand certain small kingdoms
to the south of Mysore but together with parts of Afghanistan,
and was no doubt only a small portion of the earth. In the fourth
and fifth centuries A.D., the Gupta emperors, who held sway
over the major part of Northern India, but succeeded in extend-
ing their political influence over parts of Southern India as well
claimed to have either conquered or ruled over ^ the whole earth\
Thus the prosperity of Samudragupta (c. 335-76 A.D. ) is

I, OL Mahdbhdrata, I* 73. 13 1; Vdyu, 45.76; Vi^rm^ II, 3. i. There
are diverse traditions regarding the origin of the name Bharata-varsa. Accord-
ing to many of the Puranas, it was derived from Bharata, son of Rsabha and
grandson of Nabhi who was a descendant of Vaivasvata Manu (Bhdgamta,
XI. 2. 15 ff. ; Brahmdnda^ ^4.- 4.4.1 etc.). In certain Puranic passages {Matsya,

1 14. 5 ; Brahmdnda^ 49. 10), however, the name Bharata-varsa is said to
have been derived from Bharata which was just a second name of Manu
himself. But the Bhdrati-prajd^ Bhdratl-santati^ etc., of tiie Puranic passages
appear to refer to the Bharata people (probably the Bharatas of the Vedic
literature ; cf. Raychaudhuri, Studies in Indian Antiquities^ p. 79) represented
clearly as the descendants of Bharata Dausyanti in the Mahdbhdrata,
Traditions, moreover, represent Bharata Dausyanti as a cakravartin or
sdrvabkauma^ i.e. a universal monarch or emperor {Mahdbhdmta^ I. 73. 129;
cf. BhagavatUy IX. 20. 33).

2- Select Inscriptions 3 1942? 24.

3. /^jV.,p. 50; Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pah Ptoper ffeptis, s.v. Aseka,

4 geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

mentioned as sarva-'prthwi’-vijaya-janita''^ the minister of Candra-
gupta II (c. 376-414 A.D. )3 who accompanied his master in the
latter’s campaign against the iSakas of Malwa, describes the
monarch as having the aim of krtsna-prthvi-jaya;'^ Kumaragupta I
(c. 414-55 A.D. ) is said to have ruled over the prthivi that was
encircled by the four seas;^ Skandagupta (c. 455-67 A.D.)
is described as the conqueror of the whole earth {prthivim sama-
grdm)i^ and Budhagupta (c, 576-95 A.D. ) is represented as
the ruler of the earth. ^

Although often the word earth’ was used to indicate the
dominions even of a petty ruler, the expression ^whole earth’
was used to signify the kingdom of an imperial, or at least an
independent^ monarch .

2* Imperial Rulers of India and their Sphere of Influence,

The word cakravartin means an imperial ruler, often also
called samrdt (literally ^paramount ruler’ ), eka^cchatra (literally,
*one who alone enjoys the umbrella or the insignia of sovereign-
ty’), or sdrvabhauma which literally means ’^the ruler of all land
(i.e. the whole earth)’, but actually indicates a paramount ruler
of a territory without owing allegiance to any overlord. The
literal rneaning of cakravartin is likewise ^one moving everywhere
without obstruction’ or 'a luler, the wheels of whose chariot
roll everywhere without obstruction’. Two types of this class
of rulers are indicated by the words dUdm-pati^ i.e. 'the ruler of
the quarters’, and dig-vijayin^ i.e. 'the conqueror of the quarters’,
the word dU being used to signify the territories lying in all the
four sides of the capital or original kingdom of the monarch
in question. The distinction between the dig-^vijayin^ i.e. the
ruler who acquired an empire by means of conquest, and the
disdm-pati, i.e. one who inherited an empire from his forefathers
is, however, not clearly maintained in literature.®

I. Select Inscriptions^ Vol. I, 1942, p. 259.

а. Ibid.^ p. 272.

3. Ibid,, p. 293.

4. Ibid,, p. 301.

5. Ibid,, p. 323.

б. Three classes of the cakravartin are mentioned in Pali literature;
viz. (i ) cakravala-cakravartin, (2) dvipa-cakravartin and (3) pradeda-'Cakravartin,
The first is the ruler of all the four dvipas or continents constituting the earth.

CAKR A VaKTI-K SETllA

According to the Kautiliya Arthasastra , the land which
extends north to south from the Himalaya to the sea and measures
east to west a t]xo\x%zxi(l yojanas is the ksetra (i.e. the sphere of
influence) of a cakravartin (i.e. an imperial ruler of India
Rajasekhara’s Kdvyamimdmsd says that a samrdt (practically
the same as a cakravartin ) is one who conquers the whole land
from the southern sea (the Indian Ocean) to the Himavat
(Himalaya).^ In the same breathy Rajasekhara also says that
the sphere of influence of a cakravartin is the land measuring
one thousand yojanas and lying between Kumarlpura (Gape
Comorin) and Bindusaras (in the Himalayas according to the
Puranas) and that the conqueror of the above ksetra is a cakra-
vartin.^ Thus the sphere of influence of an Indian imperial ruler
was the Puranic Bharata-varsa which is described as lying be-
tween the Himalaya and the sea {Himdlaydd=^d samudram) or as
bounded in the souths west and east by the sea and in the north
by the Himavat h'esembling the string of a bow\^ This land

according to the Buddhists; the second of only one of the dvipas and the third
merely of a portion of a dvlpa. The classification is^ however^ apparently
theoretical.

1. rx. I ; I

2. G. O. S. ed., p. 92: I 31 ^ ^ ^ w: I

gT 5 FrnT 5^1 ■O’-

ftqwjf wt; I I [%■ ^ frmpnT

^ 1 cf. beiow, p. 29-

3. Loc. cit,: 5 T> 3 FTFrf

1 ^ •fFT’TS'^^'fdT I

4. Raychaudhuri^ Studies in Indian Antiquities, pp. 77 ~ 79 * See the
Mdrkandeya Pur ana, LVII. 59 :

^unq - c^ =q- |

Gf. Vdyu, XLV. 75-76 :

^3^ l^+icrff^ ^ i

^ ■¥rr^ srarr 11

GEOGRAPHY 6F ANCIEI^T AND MEDIEVAL INDtA

is sojtnetimcs referred to as the country ^extending froni the
Himalaya to Rama’s bridge’^ or Trom the Himalaya to the sea-
shore.’^ In some Puranic passages, e.g., in Kurma^ I. 35. 41,

as well as records like some versions of Minor Rock Edict I
of As oka, the same land seems to be called Jambu-dvipa,^
although according to other popular conceptions Bharata-varsa
was merely a part of Jambu-dvipa.

That the sphere of influence of an Indian imperial ruler
did not extend beyond the limits of Bharata-varsa, seems to be
supported by a statement of Arrian that ^a sense of justice,
they say, prevented a king from attempting conquest beyond the
limits of India.

The conception of a mighty king or his generals performing
dig-vijaya, that is to say, conquering "the whole earth’, permeates
the entire body of the epic and Puranic literature. Epic heroes
like Karna and the brothers of Yudhisthira are described as
conquering the quarters or the whole earth. Karna completed
his dig^vijaya by conquering all the countries in the north, east,
south and west and is described as returned to Naga-
sahvaya (Hastinapura, capital of his patron Duryodhana)

^ after having subdued the whole earth’. ^ It is, however, inter-
esting to note that the lists of countries lying in the four different
directions and conquered by the epic dig'-vijayins are practically
the same as the lists of countries and peoples of Bharata-varsa
as found in the geographical sections of the epics, Puranas and
other works. Stories of the epic dig~vijayas were no doubt very
popular in the age of the Gupta emperors. This is proved not
only by the references to epic heroes in records dating from the
second century A.D. but also by epigraphic and literary records
of the Gupta period. Epigraphic references to the Gupta
monarchs cither as rulers or as conquerors of "the whole earth’
have already been indicated above. Raghu’s conquest of all
the quarters in ih.^Raghuva7fda (Canto IV) of Kalidasa who lived

1. Ray, DHNI, Vol. II, p. 1171.

2. Corp, Ins. Ind., Vol. Ill, p. 205.

3- SeL Ins,, 194^9 P- 50.

4. Mc’Grindle, Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arrian, p. 209.

5. Mahdbhdrata, III. 253. 22; cf. II. 26. 32.

gakravarti-icsEtra

in the fourth-fifth century A.D. is obviously modelled on the epic
description of the dig-vjijayas ofKarna, the Pandava brothers and
others. Mallinatha in his commentary on the RaghuvarfiM^ IV.
85, rightly explains the conquest of quarters as indicating eka--
cchatratva or universal sovereignty. Raghu began his conquest
in the eastern countries on the eastern sea or the Bay of Bengal.
Thence he marched towards the south and conquered the Pandya
king. He moved then towards the west and subdued the Parasi-
kas or Persians. Then he reached the north w^here he conquered
the Hunas on the Vanksu or Oxus and the lord of Pragjyotisa
or Kamarupa (modern Assam, in the Himalaya). The
description of Raghu’s digvijaya in the RaghuvarnJa was imitated
by a Prasastikdra at the Paramara court, who describes the
Paramara king Laksmadeva as having defeated Anga and
Kalinga in the east. Cola and also Pandya in the Tamraparni
valley in the south, and the Turuskas on the banks of the
Vaihksu in the north.^ The substitution of the Hunas by the
Turuskas is interesting to note. The Svhole earth* in such
cases, it may be pointed out again, does not mean the entire
land between the North Pole and the South Pole. It simply
refers to Bharata-varsa regarded as the sphere of influence of an
imperial monarch. But even that is also in a conventional sense.

Although the cakravarti-k^etra comprised the whole of Bha-
rata-varsa, the claim of the conquest or rule over it on behalf of a
historical monarch must naturally be regarded as conventional.
Numerous Indian mlers are actually known to have made the
claim ; but, in none of the cases, the king in question can be
taken as the lord of the whole of Bharata-varsa extending from
the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean. These kings were rulers
directly of only a part of India, although they conventionally
claimed suzerainty over the whole of the country. Sometimes
contemporary monarchs are found to make similar clainis.
There is, therefore, no doubt that the kings claiming conquest
of or rule over the whole earth or all the quarters were merely
imperial rulers as opposed to those of the subordinate rank.
It is also to be remembered that a ruler was often regarded as
a dig-vijqyin type of cakravartin even if he succeeded in conquering
a petty rival. The frequent representation of a prince inheriting

CjjEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

his father’s kingdom as one who conquered the kingdom by the
prowess of his own arms is a convention of the same type.
Byway of illustration^ it may be pointed out that^ in the Omgodu
grant^ of Skandavarman II, his grandfather Skandavarman I,
son and successor of Kumaravisnu described as the performer of
an Asvamedha sacrifice, is called sva-^mry-ddhigata-rdjya probably
owing to the fact that Skandavarman I succeeded in overcoming
an obstacle that stood in his way to the paternal throne.

3. Boundaries of the Cakravarti-k^etra.

We have seen above that the ksetra (sphere of influence)
of a cakravartin (an imperial ruler of India ), often mentioned as
‘the whole earthy was regarded as bounded by the Himalaya
or Bindusaras (in the Himalayas ) in the north and by the Indian
Ocean, Gape Comorin or Rama’s bridge in the south. It has
also been shown that sometimes it was described as bounded
by four seas on all the four sides. The conception of the catuh-
samudra is no doubt conventional, as Bharata-varsa is bounded only
on the east, south and west by seas (viz. the Bay of Bengal,
the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea respectively). There
is no sea in the north of this land. H.G. Raychaudhuri suggests
that any lake or lakes to the north of India in Central Asia
may have been wrongly conceived as a sea and this fact
may have been responsible for the conception of India having
four seas in four directions; the northern sea, however, may
have actually been the deserts of Central Asia often represented
in literature as ‘the sea of sand.’^ The conception of the catuh-
samudra is also found in the Vedic literature where the expression
is usually explained by the word antarik^a^ i.e. sky in the four
directions. According to the Puranas,^ the world consists of
seven concentric dvipas or islands each of which is encircled
by a sea, the central island called Jambu-dvipa being surrounded

1. Ep* Ind.^ VoL XV, pp. 249 fif.

2. The suggestion is supported by the Rdjatarangint^ IV. 172, 279, 294;
VIII. 2763. See also Stein’s trans., VoL I, p. 75.

3. Gf. Mdrkandeya^ 54. 6-7.

CAlCRAVARTl-KSETkA

by the salt sea.^ Bharata-varsa was the southernmost part of
this Jambu-dvipa, althoughj as we have seen, sometimes the two
names are used almost synonymously. The mythical conception
of the seven seas may have owed its origin to the Vedic sapta--
sindhuy i.e. the seven rivers of North-Western Bharata-varsa.
Whatever that may be, the Puranic conception of the earth
being encircled by the sea coupled with the Vedic idea of the
catuh-samudra may have been responsible for the later conception
of the cakravarti-ksetra (called Hhe whole earth’ ) bounded by
the seas on all the four directions. In the literary and epigra-
phic records, often deJSnite localities (which are mythical in
some cases) are mentioned in the north, east, south and west
of ‘^the whole earth’ or cakravarti-ksetra and, as expected, they
practically correspond to the boundaries of ancient Bharata-varsa.

Sana’s Kddamban^ gives the following boundaries of the
kingdom of an imaginary emperor named Candrapida: Gan-
dhamadana (on which Badarikasrama in the Himalayas is situat-
ed) in the north, Setubandhain the south, the mythical Udaya
or Sun-rise mountain in the east and the mythical Mandara
(apparently located here in the western or Arabian sea just
as the mythical Sun-set mountain in a similar context in
the Har^acarita ) in the west. In the Har^acarita? of the same
author, the boundaries given in connection with king Harsa-
vardhana’s attempt to conquer the quarters are : Gandhama-
dana in the north, Suvela (the hill on which the city of Lanka
was believed to have been situated ) in the south, the mythical

I - There is another Puranic conception according to which the earth
consists of four great dvipas resembling four petals of a lotus. The pericarp
of this earth-lotus is the Meru or Sumeru mountain- Similar is the concep-
tion of the Buddhists as found in the Pali literature ; Tn each cakravdla^
between the cakravdla-parvata and the outermost of the rocky circles which
environ Meru, lies a vast ocean. In this ocean are situated, equidistant from
each other, four mahd-dvlpas^ ‘great islands’ or continents. On the
north is Uttara-K-uru, on the south Jambu-dvipa, on the east Purva-Videha
and on the west Apara-GrOyana. Of these, Jambu-dvipa is larger than the rest,
being a hundred thousand yojanas in diameter, and includes India.’ Cf.
Vdyu Purdnay Gh. 34; Childers, Pali-^JSng. Dictionary^ s. v. mahddtpo% also below
pp. 17 jff.

2. Ed. Siddhantavagisa, Calcutta, pp. 194-95.

3. N. S. Press ed., p. 217.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Sun-rise mountain in the east and the mythical Sun-set
mountain in the west.

Similarly, in the colophon of Vijhanesvara's Mitdksardy
commentary on the OTdjnavalkyasmrti^ the dominions of the
author’s patron, the Later Galukya monarch Vikramaditya VI
(c* 1076-1127 A.D.) of Kalyana, are described as bounded by
Rama’s bridge in the south, Himalaya in the north, western sea
(Arabian Sea ) in the west and the eastern sea (Bay of Bengal )
in the east.^

We have also a large number of inscriptions supporting the
same traditions. The Meharauli inscription^ of Candra, who
is apparently no other than the Imperial Gupta monarch Gandra-
gupta II (c. 376-414 A.D. ), describes the king as having conquer-
ed the Vahgas [of Southern Bengal] in the east, crossed the
seven mouths of the Sindhu (or Indus, all of which fall into the
Arabian Sea) in the west, defeated the Balhikas (inhabiting the
Balkh region on the Oxus) in the north and subdued certain
people on the shores of the southern sea (Indian Ocean). A
Mandasor inscription^ describes king Yasodharman (532 A.D. )
of Malwa as having subdued the whole land bounded by the
Lauhitya (Brahmaputra) in the east, the Mahendra (i.e.
Mahendragiri in the Tirunelveli District) in the south, the Hima-
laya in the north and the western sea (Arabian Sea) in the west.

I .

^ Hi ^ Rl' Vm 5 I d I

1%WFfe2T^: 1)

SeL Ins,, 1942, p. 276 :

STcft^fTOTT

o C\ "N

3. Ibid., p. 394;

srr ■‘i '^‘■1 Pil^ r<«l : 'T^=^WRT I

CAKRAVARTX-KgEtRA

Both the above records belong to the age of the Imperial Guptas
when the convention of the cakravartin and his ksetra appears to
have developed its popularity. There are numerous similar
references in later records.

K-ing Devapala (c. 810-50 A.D. ) is described in his records
as the only lord of the whole land bounded by the source of the
Gahga (Himalaya) in the north, Rama’s bridge in the south,
Vanina’s abode (western sea) in the w’cst and LaksmI’s abode
(eastern sea) in the east. A similar list of the boundaries of the
cakravarti-^ksetra seems to be quoted in connection with the victories
of the army of Devapala’s father Dharmapala (c. 770-810 A.D.)
where mention is made of Kedara (in the Himalayas) in the
north, the Gahga-sagara confluence in the east and Gokarna
(in the North Kanara District of Mysore) and other holy places
in the south and west.^ The Karhad plates^ of the Rastra-
kuta king Krsna III (c, 939-67 A.D. ) of Manyakheta (Malkhed
in the Gulbarga Dist., Mysore) say that he subdued the rulers
of the whole land bounded by the eastern sea in the east, the
western sea in the west, theHimasaila (Himalaya) in the north
and Siihhala-dvipa (i.e. Ceylon) in the south. In the records^ of
the Paramara kings of Malwa, king Bhoja (c. 1000-55 A.D.) is
said to have enjoyed the earth extending from the Klailasa (in
the Himalaya) in the north, the Malaya mountain (Travancore
hills ) in the south, the mythical Sun-set mountain in the west and
the mythical Sim-rise mountain in the east. In the inscriptions
of the Vijayanagara rulers, Viranarasirhha (c. 1506-09 A.D. ),

1. Gaudalekhamdld, p. 38 ;

STT I

^ H d H \ ^ 1 1

2. Ibid.^ p. 36^ verse 7-

3. Ep. Ind.^ VoL IV, pp. 284-85 :

^ ’SFmwTWfTfr rg; ii

Ibid.^ VoL I, p. 235 :

srr ^ Pi

G^lOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

elder brother of the celebrated Krsnadevaraya (1509-29 A.D*),
is described as having ruled over a kingdom bounded by the Setu
(i.e. Rama'^s bridge ) in the south, the mythical Sumeru mountain
(to the north of Bharata-varsa)in the north, the mythical Sun-rise
mountain in the east and the western mountain (the mythical
Sun-set mountain) in the west,^ The boundaries of the
cakravarti-k^etra given in connection with the achievements of
Krsnadevai*aya himself, often in the same inscription, are :
the eastern mountain (i.e. the mythical Sun-rise mountain)
in the east, the mythical Sun-set mountain in the west, the Hima-
cala in the north and the Setu in the south. ^

It should be remembered that, whenever a king is described
as the ruler or conqueror of a territory indicated by four bounda-
ries that may be placed about the borders of Bharata-varsa, the
claim has to be regarded as merely conventional. There is
usually no truth in the claim beyond that the king in question
regarded himself as an imperial, or at least an independent,
ruler. The conventional nature of such claims is further demon-
strated clearly by a verse describing the victories of the Pala
army in the whole area bounded by the eastern land in the east,
the valley of the Malaya (Travancore hills) in the south, the
Maru country (Marwar or the Rajaputana Desert) in the west
and the Praleyadri (Himalaya) in the north, as found in the records
of different monarchs of the Pala family of Bengal and Bihar. ^

1. A'fys. Arch. Surv., An. Rep., 1941, pp. 185-86 :

3 TT M I cM 1 « R (<sf 1 ^<^ 4 ' TR# ^IWT I

2. Jbid.^p. 187 :

3. Gaudalekhamdldy p- 95 :

Cf. Vol. XXIX, p. 4. Cf. the folio-wing passage in an inscrip-
tion of the Somavamsis ofKosala and Utkala Vol. XXII, p. 301):

GAKRAVARTI-KSETRA

Now exactly the same verse is found to have been employed by
the Pala court poets in describing the achievements of no less
than four monarchs, viz. GJopala II (middle of the tenth
century), his son Vigrahapala II (end of the tenth century) and
the latter’s son Mahipala I (biginning of the eleventh century )
and great-grandson Vigrahapala III (middle of the eleventh
century).

It will be seen that the following boundaries of the cakra-^
varti-ksetra are indicated by the epigraphic and literary records
discussed above : (1 ) north — ^Himalaya, Bindusaras, Gandha-
mMana, Kailasa, Kedara, the mythical Sumeru mountain,
Pragjyotisa orKamarupa, theVahksuor Oxus andBalhIta; (2)
south — Indian Ocean, Cape Comorin, Mahendragiri, Setuban-
had Rames vara, Suvela, Simhala-dvipa and Malaya ; (3 ) east —
Vanga, Lauhitya, the mythical eastern or Sun-rise mountain,
Bengal, the eastern country and Gahga-sagara-sahgama ; (4)
west — the mouths of the Sindhu, Arabian Sea, the mythical
Mandara, western or Sun-set mountain, the Rajputana Desert
and Parasika (Persia). As already pointed out above, these
were the traditional boundaries of Bharat a-varsa, conceived as
the sphere of influence of an imperial ruler of India, and they
had really nothing to do with the actual territories of the king
who is described as the lord or conqueror of the land within the
above boundaries.

4. Conception of two Cakravarti-ksetras.

Besides the above cakravarti-ksetra comprising the whole of
Bharat a-varsa, sometimes North India and South India were
regarded as separate spheres of influence of the imperial monarchs
respectively of Northern and Southern India. In view of the
conventional nature of the claim of the status of a cakru’-
vartin^ it is interesting to note that sometimes the same king is
represented as the lord of the whole of the cakravarti’-k^etra
in one case, but of the partial cakravarti^k^etra comprising
either North or South India in another. We have referred
above to the description of the Pala king Devapala of Bengal
and Bihar as the only lord of the whole land bounded by the
Himalaya, Rama’s bridge, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian

14 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Sea. Elsewhere^ however, the same monarch is said to have
subdued the whole land bounded by the father of the Reva (Nar-
mada), i.e. the Vindhya, in the south; the father of Gauri, i.e.
the Himalaya, in the north; and the two seas (eastern and western,
i.e. the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) in the east and west.
These boundaries of North India are no doubt based on Manuks
celebrated definition of Aryavarta.^ Similar claims are known
to have been made on behalf of many other imperial rulers of
Northern India. Thus Visala or Vigraharaja IV (c. 1153-64
A.D. ) of the Oahamana dynasty of Ajmer and Sakambhari is
described as having subdued Aryavarta lying between the
Vindhya and the Himadri.^

The Satavahana kings of the Deccan claimed to have been
the lords of Daksinapatha, a name often applied to the whole
of South India lying beyond the Vindhyas and the Narmada.
The great Satavahana monarch Gautamiputra Satakarni (c.
106-30 A.D.) actually ruled over the western part of South
India from the Krsna in the south to Akara and Avanti in Malwa
in the north. But he claims at the same time to have been the
lord of the Vindhya, !Rksavat, Pariyatra, Mahendra and Malaya
mountains which covered practically the whole of the Vindhyan
range as well as the Eastern and Western Ghats. That Gauta-
xniputra jS^atakarni claimed a sort of vague suzerainty over the
whole of South India is further indicated by the claim that his
chargers drank the waters of the three seas, no doubt meaning
the eastern, southern and western seas, i.e. the Bay of Bengal,
the Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea. A Satavahana king is
mentioned in Bana’s Har^acarita as the 'lord of the three seas.^^
South India conceived as a separate cakravarti’-k^etra is
mentioned as bounded by the three seas also in the inscriptions

I- Gaudalekhamdld^ P- 7^ *

wr ^ 'WTT II

2 . Manusm(ti^ II. 22.

3. Ind. Ant,y Vol. XIX, pp. 215 fF.

4. See SeL Ins,^ 1942? pp. 196 fF.; Har^acarita^ op. cit.^ p. 251.

CAKRA VARTI-K SETRA

of a later date. The Galukyas of Badami claimed to be lords
of the land lying within the three seas :

The Mulgund inscription of Pahcala similarly
represents him as the lord of the whole country bounded by the
eastern, western and southern seas.^ The insci^iptions of the
Eastern Galukyas, however, refer to the southern cakravarti-‘
k^eira as the land between the Naimiada and the Setu.®

Among other epigraphic references to South India as the
special sphere of influence of South Indian monarchs, mention
may be made of a Kadamba inscription,^ in which the Kadamba
king Ravivarman (c. 490-538 A.D. ) is represented as the lord
of the earth as far as the Narmada in the north.

5, The two Cakravarti^ksefras mentioned together.

We have seen above that the Paramara king Bhoja (c. 1000-
55 A.D. ) is sometimes represented as the lord of the land boun-
ded by the Kailasa, the Malaya and the mythical Sun-set and
Sun-rise mountains. There is another tradition which says that
the same Paramara king ruled for a little over fiftyfive years
over ‘Daksinapatha together with Gauda.’^ There is no doubt
that Daksinapatha has been mentioned here in the sense of the
whole of South India, often conceived as a separate cakravarti--
k^etra. That the claim is merely conventional is shown by the
fact that Bhoja’s dominions did not include any considerable
part of South India. But scholars have so long failed to grasp
the correct significance of the word Gauda mentioned in relation
to Daksinapatha in the above context.

I have little doubt that Gauda has been mentioned here
to indicate the northern cakravarti^-kseira or Aryavarta, so that
Bhoja is represented as the lord of the entire Gakravarti-ksetra
comprisingbothDakshinapathaand North India. Thus both the
partial cakravarti-k^etras are mentioned here side by side to signify
the whole of Bharat a-varsa conceived as the main cakravarti-^h^etra.
It is interesting to note in this connection that there is some

1. Cf. Ep. Ind,, VoL XIX, pp. 64, etc.

2. Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. I, Part ii, pp. 307, 432.

3. Venkataramanayya, The Eastern Galukyas of Vengi p. 7.

4. Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXIIT, p. 88.

5. Ray, op, cit. , p. 858.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

evidence in support of the name Gauda being sometimes applied
to indicate the whole of Nothern India. The Brahmanical
society of South India is usually divided into five classes called
the Panca-Dravid^- These classes are : (1) Dravida (Tamil),
(2) Karnata (Kannada), (3) Gurjara (Gujarati), (4) Maha-
rastra and (5 ) Tailanga (Telugu ). This classification is
based on a linguistic division of the South Indian Brahmanas,
Although the population of North India can hardly be divided
into five linguistic groups with propriety, an attempt was made
in imitation of the South Indian classification to classify the
Brahmana society of Northern India into the same number of
subdivisions. Strangely, however, the common name applied
to the five classes of North Indian Brahmanas was Gauda as
Dravida is the general name of southern Brahmanas. The divi-
sions of the Northern Brahmanas are : (1) Sarasvata (associated
with the valley of the Sarasvati in the Punjab ), (2 ) Kanyakubja
(in Uttar Pradesh), (3) Gauda (in Bengal), (4) Maithila (in
North Bihar) and Utkala (in Orissa). In these cases, therefore,
the name Dravida indicates South India, while Gauda signifies
North India. We know that the name Gauda, originally
applied to a part of Bengal, was often used to indicate all the
countries of Eastern India. Thus the East Indian style of Sanskrit
composition as well as the medieval East Indian alphabet came
to be called after Gauda. A further expansion of the connotation
of the name to indicate the whole of North India is suggested by
the classification of Brahmanas referred to above. ^

I- Some of the points discussed here were raised by me first in
JRASBy Letters, VoL 1939, pp. 4o7fF. As regards the last paragraph,
cf. Chapter VI below. The conception, of Pahea-Gauda or the Five Gaudas
is noticed in an inscription of 926 A.D. (^Ep. Ind,y Vol. XXXII, p. 48) as
well as in the Rdjatarangirit (IV. 468) composed about 1150 A.D.

Chapter II

CATUR-DVIPA AND SAPTA-DVIPA VASUMATI

The dominant cosmographical conception of the Puranas
is that of the Sapta-dvipa Vasumati, i.e. the earth consisting of
seven concentric island-continents. Although there is some
difference in the reading of the names and their order in the list,
the earlier and authoritative Puranas offer the following names
of the islands :

1. Jambu having Mount Meru or Sumeru at the centre
and surrounded by the ocean of Lavana (salt);

2. Plaksa surrounding the Lavana Ocean and surrounded
by the ocean of Iksu (sugarcane juice);

3. Salmali surrounding the Iksu Ocean and surrounded
by the ocean of Sura (wine);

4. Kusa surrounding the Sura Ocean and surrounded
by the ocean of Sarpis (clarified butter);

5. Kraunca surrounding the Sarpis Ocean and surround-
ed by the ocean of Dadhi (curds ) ;

6. Saka surrounding the Dadhi Ocean and surrounded
by the ocean of Dugdha (milk ) ; and

7. Puskara surrounding the Dugdha ocean and surround-
ed by the Ocean of Jala (water ).i

The earliest reference to the Sapta-dvipa Vasumati con-
ception seems to be found in the Mahabhdsya of Patahjali who
flourished at the cotirt of Pusyanaitra Suhga (c. 187-151 B.G. ),

I- I

wm n

(4g7if puT^a, io8, 1-3),

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

though the work as we have it today seems to contain some
later interpolations.^

Some of the earlier Puranas confuse the seven-island
conception of the earth with another conception of the world
consisting of four island-continents. Thus^ in the Vdyu Purdna^
we have the following passages :

1. XXXIII. 4 — ^

2. XXXIIL 24—

3. XXXIII. 31 —

4. XXXIV.

5. XXXIV. 46 — ;

6. XXXIV. 55-56~=qc^Tfr i ;

7. XLI. 83 — ^ ;

8. XLiI. 85 — 'Cr I J

9. XLI. 86 —

According to this CatuT’-dvipd Vasumati conception, the
earth was shaped like a lotus having Mt. Mem or Sumeru as
its karnikd (pericarp y and the four island-continents as its four
petals. These four dfy^^-petals of the earth-lotus on the four
sides of Mt. Meru are the following :

1. Kum or Uttara-Xuru in the north;

2. Jambu or Bharata in the south;

3. Bhadrasva in the east, and

4. Ketumala in the west.®

1. Kielhorn’s ed., Vol. I, p. 9; cf. VoL XV, pp. 633 fF; below,

p. 24, note I.

2. In connection with Mt. Meru, mention is made of four Viskambha-

parvatas or supporting ranges, viz. Mandara in the east, Gandhamadana
in the south, Vipula in the west and Suparsva in the north, which have
respectively the following lakes on them — ^Arupoda, Manasa, Sitoda or
Sitoda and Bhadra. See Purdna^ Chapter 113; Vdyu Pwmwa, Chapters

35*36; etc. Another eight are sometimes mentioned as Maryddd-parvata or
boundary ranges, e. g,, Jathara and Devakuta in the east and Nisadha
and Paripatra in the^west both groups extending from Mt. Nila to Mt.
Ni^adha, as also Kailasa and Himavat in the south and Srhgavat and
Jarudhi in the north, both groups extending from sea to sea. See Mdrkarideya
Purd^y Chapter 54. Sometimes the Malyavat is mentioned as the range
extending from Mt. Nila to Mt. Nisadha. See Matsya Purd^a, 113. 34-35.
For thcvar^aparvataSy see below, p. 20.

3. See, e.g., Mahdbhdratay VI, 6. ia-13; Vdyu Purdna^ XXXIV. 37 ff.;
Vi$nu Purdnuy II. 2. 38.

GATUR-DVlPiL AND SAPTA-DVipA VASUMATl 19

Of these four-continent and seven-continent theories, the
first may be regarded as earlier on the following grounds. In
the first place, the number four associating the continents with
the four directions (viz. north, east, south and west) is quite
natural, while the number seven is regarded by scholars as
conventional even in the Secondly, as we shall see

below, the Buddhist writers conceived the great mountain at
the centre of the earth as having seven concentric circles of rock
around it, and these appear to have later developed into the
Puranic theory of the seven concentric islands forming the earth.
Thirdly, the early Pali works of the Buddhists alluding to the
four-continent earth appear to be earlier than the Epico-
Puranic sections on geography and cosmography which were
mostly compiled about the early centuries of the Christian era,
many of them as late as the 4th century A.D. or later.^

According to the Pali Buddhist works, there are enumer-
able cakravdlas forming the world and each of them has at the
centre a mountain called Meru. Between the Gakravala-
parvata and the outermost of the seven rocky circles surround-
ing Mt. Meru lies a vast ocean and the four Mahddvipos are
situated in the said ocean, equidistant from each other. These
are the following :

1. Kuru or Uttara-Kuru in the north;

2. Jambu in the south;

3. Purva-Videha in the east; and

4. Apara-Goyana ( or Godana ) in the west.^

It will be seen that, while the names of the first and second
are the same as in the Epico-Puranic list, those of Nos. 3 and 4
are different in the Brahmanical and Buddhist accounts. The
name Purva-Videha would mean "^Eastern Videha’ or more
probably ^Videha in the east’. It may be that the Buddhists
preferred this name because the Buddha’s birth-place, which
is one of the four greatest Buddhist tirthaSy was situated in the
ancient Videha country in Eastern India. While the Buddha
was born at Lumbini-grama near Padaria in the Nepalese

1. Gf. Vedic Index, VoL II, p. 424-

2. Gf. below, pp. 28-29. For the seven seas, cf. above, p. 9.

3. See Childers, Pali-Eng, DicU^ s. v. mahadtpo, etc.; Malalasekcra,
Diet. Pali Prop. jV*-, s. v. Jambu-dipa, etc., cf. above, p. 9, note

20 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Tarai^ the city of Mithila, the ancient capital of Videha^ stood
on the site of modern Janakpur in the same Tarai regions
though the Videha country comprised primarily the Tirhut
area of Northern Bihar, ^

As regards the names Bhadrasva and Ketumala in the
Epico-Puranic list, they link the four-continent theory with
the seven-continent one. Jambu-dvipa, the central island
according to the Sapta-dvipd Vasumati conception, was divided
into nine divisions or var^as^ of which three lay to the south of
Mt. Meru, three to its north, one around Mt. Meru at the
centre, and one each to its east and west as follows :

I. (in the centre) —

1. Mem or Ilavrta lying around Mt. Mem.

II. (to the south of Mem- or Ilavrta- varsa around Mt.

Meru ) —

2. Bharata in the extreme south bounded in the north
by Mt. Himavat and by the Salt Ocean on the three
other sides.

3. Kimpurusa to the north of Mt. Himavat and to the
south of Mt. Hemakuta, the southern boundary of
Hari-varsa.

4. Hari to the north of Mt. Hemakuta and to the
south of Mt. Nisadha which is the southern boundary
of Ilavrta-varsa around Mt. Meru.

III. (to the north of Mt. Meru and of Meru- or Ilavrta-

varsa ) —

5. Ramyaka to the north of Mt. Nila the northern
boundary of Meru- or Ilavrta-varsa, and to the
south of Mt. Sveta.

6. Hiranmaya to the north of Mt. Sveta, which is the
northern boundary of Ramyaka-varsa, and to the
south of Mt. iSrhgin or Srhgavat.

7. Kuru or Uttara-Kum to the north of Mt. Srhgin or
Srhgavat, the northern boundary of Hiranmaya-
varsa and bounded on the other three sides by the
Lavana ocean.

IV. 8. Bhadrasva to the east of Meru- or Ilavrta-varsa

around Mt. Meru.

I . The words p urva and apara were prefixed to the names of the
eastern and western continents on the analogy of uttara in XJttara-Kuru.
The Vaijayantt mentions Purvagandhika and Aparagandhika for Purva- Videha
and Apara-Goyana. Cf. Sircar, Cosm. Geog, E. Ind. p. 105, note.

CATUk-BVlPA A^lb SAPTA-DVipA VASUMATI 21

V. 9, Ketumala to the west of Mem- or Ilavrta-varsa
around Mt. Mera.i

It seems that Jambu-dvipa was originally divided into
seven var^as (Nos. 1-7) to which Bhadrasva and Ketumala
(Nos. 8-9) were later added. One has to note in this connection
that the Jain writers adopted the seven-fold division of Jambu-
dvipa and gave the names of Nos. 1-7 from south to north as
follows :

1. Bharata (not Bharata) ;

2. Haimavata (for Kimpurusa) ;

3. Hari;

4. Videha or Mahavideha (for Meru or Ilavrta; cf.
Purva-Videha of the Buddhists ) ;

5. Ramyaka;

6. Hairanyavata (same as Hiranmaya); and

7. Ahavata (for Uttara-Kuru).^

The Jains also adopted the Puranic conception of the earth
consisting of a number of concentric islands each surrounded
by an ocean, and it appears that, originally, they thought of
seven concentric islands as in the Puranas,^ though the number
gradually increased so that different works gave the numbers
and names of the island-continents differently.

At the beginning of the Jain lists of islands and oceans, we
have the following seven pairs of names :

1. Jambu-dvipa surrounded by the Lavana- water ocean;

2. Dhataki-khanda surrounding the Lavana ocean and
surrounded by the Kala-water Ocean ;

1. See, e.g.j Vdyu Purdna^ Chapters 33-34; Matsya Purdna^ Chapter
1 13; Addrkandeya Pur ana ^ Chapter 54. Priyavrata, king of Jambu-dvipa,
divided the kingdom among his sons — Nabhi (Hima- or Bharata- varsa),
Kimpurusa (Hemakuta or Kimpurusa- varsa) , Harivarsa (Hari- or
Naisadha- varsa), Ilavrta (Meru- or Ilavrta-varsa), Ramya (Nila-
or Rarayaka-varsa), Kuru (Srngavad- or Uttara-Kuru-varsa), Bhadra:§va
(Bhadrasva- or Maly avad- varsa) and Ketumala (KetumMa or Gandhama-
dana-varsa) .

2. See Kirfel, Die Kosmographie der Inder, p. 215.

3. Note that the Tiloyapannatti once (V. 30) specially mentions the
following seven separately out of the 32 Seas — (i ) Kala, (2) Varuni,
(3) Lavana, (4) Ghrta, (5) Ksira, (6) Puskara and (7) SvayambhO-
ramaria.

GfiOGRAPttV OF ANCIENT ANb MEDIEVAL INDIA

3- Puskara-dvipa surrounding the Kala Ocean and
surrounded by the Puskara-water Ocean ;

4. Varunivara-dvipa surrounding the Paskara Ocean
and having beyond it the Varuni-water Ocean (cf.
Sura-samudra of the Puranas, the words sura and
varuni being synonymous ) ;

5. Ksiravara-dvipa lying beyond the Varuni Ocean and
having beyond it the Ksira-water ocean (cf. Dugdha-
samudra of the Puranas, the words ksira and dugdha
being synonymous) ;

6. Ghrtavara-dvipa lying beyond the Ksira Ocean and
having beyond it the Ghrta-water Ocean (cf. Sarpih-
samudra of the Puranas, the words ghrta and sarpis
being synonymous ) ; and

7. Ksaudravara-dvipa lying beyond the Ghrta Ocean
and having beyond it the Ksaudra-water Ocean (cf.
Iksu-samudra of the Puranas, the word ksaudra
meaning ‘honey’).

Of the seven names of islands. Nos. 4-7 are coined after
the names of the seas around each of them, which remind us of
the Oceans of similar names in the Puranic lists, although No.
4 is also reminiscent of the Varuna-dvipa which was one of the
nine divisions of Bharata-varsa according to the Puranas.^ The
names Jambu and Puskara are well-known from the Puranic
lists while Dhataki-khanda is known to have been the name of
a division of Puskara-dvipa according to the Puranas.®

According to the Tiloyapannatti (V. 11-26) which is a
post-Gupta work, the earth consists of 16 inner and 16 outer
dvipas, each of them having an ocean beyond it. The 16 inner

irFEjoff n

aPT % trq-;

{Mdrkari^ya Purma, 57 6-7). Some late Puritas mention Kataha

Simh^a m place of Saumya and Gandharva and apply the n^e
Kumara, Kuman or Kumarika to Sagarasamvrta {Vamana Purina, 13. i •
?ubcondneX’ ninth doiii.8 is regarded as the Indo-Pakistan

CaTUH-BVIPA and SAPTA-BViPA VASUMATl

dvipas are the seven already enumerated above together with
nine others whose names are also applied to the oceans beyond
each of them. They are the following, — (1 ) Nandisvara^
(2 ) Arunavara, (3 ) Arunabhasa, (4 ) Kundalavara, (5 )
Sahkhavara, (6) Rucakavara, (7) Bhujagavara^ (8) Kusavara
and (9) Krauhcavara. It will be seen that the last two
names were borrowed from the Puranic lists. The names of
the 16 outer dvipas^ applied also to the oceans beyond each of
them, are as follows — (1 ) Manahsila, (2) Haritala, (3)
Sindura, (4) iSyama, (5) Ahjanavara, (6) Hihgula, (7)
Rupyavara, (8) Kahcanaka, (9) Vajravara, (10) Vaidurya,
(11) Nagavara, (12) Bhutavara, (13) Yaksavara, (14) I>eva-
vara, (15) Ahindravara, and (16) Svayambhuramana. Of
these names, Manahsila reminds us of hlanahsilatala loca-
ted by the Buddhists in the Himalayan region,^ while Rupya
and Kahcana are no doubt the same as the Suvarna-Rupyaka-
dvipa of the Rdmdyana and the Chryse and Argyre of the
Classical writers,^ w'hich wrere beyond the Bay of Bengal.

How the number of the islands and oceans were increased
arbitrarily can be seen from their lists in later works which
mention the following names of dvipas (also applied to the
allied oceans) beyond the Nandisvara-dvipa surrounded by the
Nandisvara or Nandisvaroda Ocean — (1 ) Aruna (cf. the
name of the Arunoda Lake on the Viskambha^-parvata called
Mandara in the Puranas ), (2 ) Arunavara, (3 ) Arunavara-

vabhasa, (4) Kundala, (5) Kundalavara, (6) Kundalavara-
vabhasa, (7) iSahkha, (8) Sahkhavara (9) iSahkhavarava-
bhasa, (10) Rucaka, (11) Rucakavara, (12) Rucakavara-
vabhasa, (13) Hara, (14) Haravara, (15) Haravaravabhasa,
(16) Ardhahara, (17) Ardhaharavara, (18) Ardhaharavara-
vabhasa, (19) Kanakavali, (20) Kanakavalivara, (21) Kana-
kavalivaravabhasa, (22) Ratnavali, (23) Ratnavalivara, (24)
Ratnavalivaravabhasa, (25) Muktavali, (26) Muktavalivara,
(27) Muktavalivaravabhasa, (28) Ajina, (29) Ajinavara,
(30) Ajinavaravabhasa, (31) Surya, (32) Suryavara, (33)
Suryavaravabhasa, (34) Deva, (35) Naga, (36) Yaksa, (37)
Bhuta, and (38) Svayambhuramana.® It will be seen that,

I. Malalasekera, op* cit.^ s.v.

a. See R.C. Majumdar, Suvrnadvlpa^ Part I, pp. 54-55. The names
Suvarnadvipa and Suvarnabhumi are famous in early Indian literature.

3. ICirfel, op* cit*:, pp. 256-61.

geography of ancient and MBDIEVAE INDIA

while the Tilqyapannattl list offers 32 islands^ the later list has
no less than 46. We have also to note the attempt to create
22 new names out of 11 names with the expressions vara and
vardvahkdsa sufBxed thereto, even though a few names are found
not to have been modified in the same way. There are also
numerous fantastic details about all the islands and oceans in
the Jain works, which have really nothing to do with geography.
But we may thank the Jain authors for their power of imagination
and passion for useless description in which they appear to have
excelled the Puranic writers.

One of the dvipas (literally, ^an island’ or ^a land lying bet-
ween two rivers’ ) constituting the Puranic Sapta-dvipd Vasumati
(i.e. the earth consisting of seven dvipas) is called by the name
iSaka-dvipa or iSaka-dvipa.^ This land is generally identified
with the country inhabited by the iSaka people, which was called
Scythia by the Greeks, the Greek name for the people being
^Scythian.’ Three different settlements of the Sakas are men-
tioned in the old Persian inscriptions, one of which lay in the plains
of the rivers Jaxartes or Syr Darya and Oxus or Amu Darya in
Central Asia and these Sakas are believed by some scholars
to have settled later in the valley of the Helmund in the eastern
part of Iran.^ Both these old and new homelands of the Saka
people were called Scythia, while East Iran is known to have
been called Sakast^ (modern Seistan, medieval Sijistan)
by the Persians and Saka-dvipa or Saka-dvipa by the Indians
though Saka-dvipa or Saka-dvipa in the original Puranic concep-
tion of Sapta-dvipd Vasumati may have also included the Saka

I. See above, p- 17; cf. Agni Purdnuy Chapter 108, verse 1-2:

I
\\

The conception, as we have seen, occurs in Patanjali’s Mahdhhdsya (ed.
Kielhorn), Vol. I, p. 9- The UcTsacuTita (ed. Parab, p. 185 ) mentions affddciici*'
dvtpd medinl. For the traditions about the earth of 9 and 13 dmpas^ see
Sircar, Cosm^ Geog. E* Ind. Lit,, p. 38, note 17. Cf. above, pp. 17 ff.

2. See The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 120; Dey, Geographical JOictionary, s.v.

CATtJR-BVipiL ANI> SAPTA-BVIPA VASUMATl 25

settlement in the Oxus and Jaxartes valleys in Central Asia.
There is another name in the list of the seven dvipas, viz-
Kuia-dvipa^ which likewise seems to be mentioned in the old
Persian inscriptions,

The name of a country calle d Kush and a people called
Kushiya (i.e. the people of Kush) are found in several old
Persian inscriptions. The Hamadan inscription^ of Darius
{c, 522-486 B- G, ), for instance^ gives the following boundaries
of the empire of that great monarch : Trom the Scythians that
are beyond Sogdiana (i.e. the Bukhara region between the
Oxus and the Jaxartes) — ^from there — as far as Kush, from
Hindu (i.e, Sindhu or India meaning the land on the river
Indus) — therefrom — as far as Sparda (i.e. Sardis in Asia
Minor).’ Some scholars identify Kush \vith Ethiopia while
others place it in Central Egypt.^ As Mudraya (i.e. Egypt) and
Kush are both mentioned in the list of sati^apies of the ancient
Persian emperors, the identification of Kush with Ethiopia seems
to be more reasonable. There is no doubt that the country
called Kush was situated somewhere in North-Eastern Africa
beyond Mudraya or Egypt. It is possible to connect this country
with Kusa-dvipa which is, like Saka-dvipa or §aka-dvipa, one of
the seven dvlpas constituting the Puranic Sapta-dvipd Vasumati.

1. Select Inscriptions, 1942, pp. 8-9; hacd Sakaibtsh tyaiy para Sugdam amata

ydtd d Kushd hacd Hmdauv amata ydtd a Sparda^ S^.nsLrit ( =

srr^^TTcr (==mw^), (=ftrsft:=Wi India,

i.e. the land on the Sindhu or Indus), SfJTgf; t) ic|<J 3 ilt^<iTd. The members
of the priestly class of ancient Peisia (Iran) called Jidagi (Oreek Jidagos), who
settled in India, became known, after their absorption in the Indian social
system, as the Maga Brahmanas of Saka-dvfpa or the Sakadvipiya Brahmanas.
Gf. R.. G-. Bhandarkar, Vaisnautsm, Saivism and Adinor J^eligious Systems, ^oona.
ed., pp- 218 ff.

2. Hall, Ancient Hisio 7 y of the JVear East, yth ed., p. 225.

Chapter II

PURANIC LIST OF PEOPLES

F.E. Pargiter made some interesting remarks in regard to
the historical sections common to several of the Puranas. His
views^ may be summarised as follows :

r. Special abbreviations for Chapters III and IV —

Ac — Abhidhdnacintdmani .

Agn — Agni Pur ana.

JBgxjt — Bhdgavata Pur aria, Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta.

Bho — Bhavisya Pur ana.

Bmd — Bramdnda Purdna, Bahgabasi Office, Galcutta-

Bmh — Brahma Purdna, Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta.

Bs — Bzhatsamhitd — a Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta; b Restored text of
the Ms. consulted by Al-Biruni (c. 1030 A.D.).

Grd — GarudaPurdna, Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta.

Hv — Harwarhsa .

Km — ^Rajasekhara’s Kavyamlmarhsa, C.O.S. ed., Baroda.

Krm — Kurma Pur ana — a Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta ; b Bibliotheca
Indica, ASB, Calcutta ; c Venkatesvara Press, Bombay.

M.bh — Mahdbhdrata, Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta.

Adk — Addrkandeya Purdna — ed. M. C. Pal, Calcutta, 1890; b Biblio-
theca Indica, ASB, Calcutta, 1862; c Bahgabasi Office,
Calcutta; d Venkatesvara Press, Bombay.

Mts — ^Adatsya Pur ana — a Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta; b Venkatesvara
Press, Bombay; c Anandasrama Press, Poona; d Restored text of
the Ms consulted by Al-Biruni (c. 1030 A.D.).

Pdm — Padma Pur ana.

Ram — Rdmdyana, ISTiiriayasagara Press, Bombay.

Sv — Stva Pur ana.

’Tks — Purusottama’s ITrikandasesa.

Vj — Yadavaprakasa’s Vaijayantz.

Vmn — Vdmana Parana — a ed. M. G. Pal, Calcutta, 1893; h Vehka-
tesvara Press, Bombay.

Vsn — Vifnu Pur ana.

Vmn JOkm — Vi^nudharmottara^ Venkatesvara Press, Bombay.

Yy — Yayu Purdna — a Bahgabasi Office, Calcutta; h Restored text of
the Ms consulted by Al-Biruni (c. 1030 A.D.); c Bibliotheca
Indica, ASB, Calcutta; d Venkatesvara Press, Bombay;
e Anandasrama Press, Poona.

2 - Gf. T'fw Purana *Pext of the Bynasties of the Kali Age, CDxford University
Press, 1913, pp- xxvi f.

I>TJRAKiG ZJST OF FEOFLFS

The Bhv was the first Purana to give an account of the
dynasties of the Kali age and the Mts, Vy and Bmd got their
account from it, though they as well as some other Puranas existed
before the Bhv. Metrical accounts of the dynasties of North India
grew up gradually, composed in iSlokas in a literary Prakrit and
recited by bards and minstrels. After the introduction of writ-
ing about the 7th century B.C., the accounts were composed
and written down in or near Magadha in Magadhi or Pali. The
Bhv appropriated the Prakrit metrical accounts and converted
the Prakrit Slokas into Sanskrit in the form of a prophecy uttered
by Vyasa. This reshaping was carried through generally but not
yet completely, and revisions of the text with new inclusions were
taking place from time to time. The account of the Andhras
(Satavahanas ) originally composed in North India and written
in Kharosthi was incorporated into the text about the middle
of the 3rd century A.D. The Mts borrowed the accounts from
the Bhv during the last quarter of the 3rd century- These
Bhv accounts, which were still in Kharosthi and cannot now
be traced in the extant text of the Purana, were revised during
the first quarter of the 4th century and the revised text was
borrowed by the Vy now represented by a Ms [e Vayu of Pargiter )
in the India Office Library. The text was revised again about
the beginning of the second quarter of the 4th century and
this version was adopted by the Vy and soon after by the
Bmd (which may have copied from the Vy') and now constitutes
their general versions. The Vsn next utilised the accounts
about the end of the 4th century and condensed it in Sanskrit
prose. About the 8th or 9th century, the Bgvt (which in the
main condensed the matter in new Slokas) drew its materials
from the Bmd and more particularly from the Vsn. The Grdy
whose date is uncertain, utilised the same materials but has a
bald list of the kings in new Sanskrit iSlokas. Since those times
a quiet process of small emendations in details has been at work
in these Puranas.

Some of the theories of Pargiter have been criticised. If
we believe that the Brahmi alphabet evolved out of the pre-
historic Indus valley script, we should only speak of the growth
of the popularity of writing and not of the introduction of writing
about the 7th century B. G. The Andhras (Satavahanas ) of
the Deccan had nothing to do with the north-western region

OROGRAPHY OP AMGIENt AND MEDIEVAL INdIA

of India where the Kharosthi script was prevalent; it is, therefore,
diiBcnlt to believe that the historical accounts of this royal family
were originally composed in northern (north-western ?) India
and written in Kharosthi. The definite epochs suggested by
Pargiter for the composition, revision or transmission of the
particular texts are again no better than tentative. But from a
study of the sections on cosmography and geography which are
common to several of the Puranas, it appears that Pargiter is
probably right as regards the chronological sequence of at least
some of the Puranas with which he deals. As to the suggestion
that the original of the historical section of the Puranas was com-
posed in Prakrit, we know that the theory has been contested
by Keith,^ though Winternitz^ seems to be inclined to agree with
Pargiter. It is interesting to note that the geographical sections
exhibit Prakrit influence in such forms of names as

etc. It may be pointed out that the geo-
graphical sections, especially the list of janapadas^ found in the
Bmds Mky Mts^ Vmn and Vy practically follow the same draft.
The original draft seems to have been compiled for Mts. The
Vy text appears to be the earliest copy from that of the Mts. The
Mk probably copied the text from the at a slightly later date;
but a little independence of the copyist in the arrangement of
names in a few cases is noticed in this text. TlaoBmd furnishes us
with a still later copy of the Vy text. The date of this copy is
possibly not far removed from the time of Al-Biruni (c. 1 030 A.D. )
who is known to have consulted a Ms of the Vy in giving a list of
peoples after the Puranas. The Krm^ which like some other
Puranas, copies the smaller draft of the janapada list from the Vsn^
has a fuller list of rivers probably after the Vy. The smaller drafts
of the lists of both the peoples and rivers appear to have been
compiled from the bigger drafts in the Mts and Vy for the first
time for the Vsn. Like that of the Bmd^ the Krm text does not
seem to be far removed in point of time from the date of Al-Biruni.
The Vmn appears, however, to be the latest copy of the modified
draft as found in the other texts. But in several cases the com-
piler of the Vmn shows a tendency to arrange the names rather
independently, although in many cases he does not go much

1. JRAS, 1914, pp. 1021 ff,; 1915, pp. 3^8 fF.

2. Hist. Ind. LiL^ Vol. I, p. 524, note.

PURANIC LIST OF PEOPLES

beyond the originals before him. The new reading introduced
by later copyists of the original draft or its modifications apear
to have been, in some cases, offered by way of improvement
or correction, and it is sometimes difficult to determine the reading
of the original draft. The fact, however, that even the late Vmn
often leaves the mistakes of the other copies as they are probably
points to the absence of any determined and persistent effort
on the part of the copyists to deviate from the texts before them.
It should be remembered that numerous mistakes had already
crept into the Vy text as early as c. 1030 A.D. when Al-Biruni
consulted a Vy Ms. The geographical section of the Grd exhibits
considerable freedom, though it seems to have utilised the AK
section known as the Kurma-vibhdga. The date of the Grd section
seems to be close to that of the Vmn, as both add to the old des-
cription of K.umari-dvipa as

a new line placing the Turuskas in the north and the
Andhras in the south. As these Turuskas and Andhras appear
to be no other than the Turkish Musalmans and the Kakatiyas
respectively, the Vmn and Grd sections on geography could not
possibly have been compiled much earlier than the 13th
century. The Sv also contains the same reference.

We have seen above that the Indian sub-continent together
with some parts of Central Asia (sometimes called Bharata-varsa
and sometimes Sagarasaihvrta or Kumari or Kumara dvipa
which was regarded as one-ninth of Bharata-varsa ) was divided
into two divisions, viz. Northern (Aryavarta) and Southern
(Daksinatya or Daksinapatha). The dividing line between the
two was often mentioned as the river Narmada. The Northern
division was subdivided into four territories, viz. Madhyadesa
or the Central region; Pracya or Purva-desa, the Eastern
region; Aparanta or Pascad-desa, the Western region (which
included some areas lying to the south of the Narmada); and
Udicya or Uttarapatha, the Northern region comprising the
northern and north-western areas. Sometimes the Himalayan
and Vindhyan territories were separately mentioned.^

I. For some of these points, cf. also below. Chapter XIII, notes.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

TEXT

Mk,Ch.57 (Ch. 54 in some versions), vv. 34-59;!^,
Gh. 45, w. 109-36; cf. Sachau, Alb. Ind., I, pp. 299-300; Bmdy
Gh. 49, w. 44-71 ; Mts, Gh. 114, w. 34-56 ; Vmn, Ch. 13, w.
36-58. Gf. K-irfel, Bharatavar?a, pp. 43-49 ; G.A. Lewis in Purana,
Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 2; Sircar, Cosm. Geog. E. Ind. Lit., pp. 71fF.

Madhya-deSa

I. The following two lines are omitted in Mk. Mbh (VI. 9. 39-40), how-
ever, has— gw 1

^srr g" 1 1 *rwi: ^1 frg-sffhWT: I

R-q vH'^t 0 ftt 1 ; II As to the janapadas of the
Madhyadesa, Vmn has rather freely — (« —

(a — O'hl^'d') I

wr (a— 5 ?rrgiT) 1 vn 1 11

(a— o^gr) sn-fitTr: (a— wHr:) 11

2- Mts — ttlRrd-H Vy, Bmd — dlRrtd-H

For the Kuru country proper with its capitals at Hastinapura in the present
Meerut District and Indraprastha in the Delhi region, see Raychaudhuri,
PHAI^ 193S, pp. 1 9-20 5 1 1 3- For the Pancalas with their capitals at modern
Ramnagar (ancient Ahicchatra) in the Bareilly District and Rampil
(ancient Kampilya) in the Farrukhabad District, see ibid,^ pp. 114 f.

3. Vy, Bmd, Mts— ; Mbh—

For the six branches of the J§alva tribe, cf. Vj\ 1.3.1. 38-39 —

(sT) ^ 3TTr 5JWRT: 1 W ^ gTr^m-Mdl W II

For the traditional verse referring to the constituting elements of the
jSalva or KLarakuksiya tribe that lived in the Punjab and the adjoining regions
of U.P. and Rajasthan, quoted by the grammarians, cf. Pre- Aryan and Pre-Dravi'-
dian in India, p. 8o. Jahgala is apparently the same as Kuru-jahgala near the
Sarasvati. See Raychaudhuri, op. cit., pp. 19 f.

4. Vy, Bmd, Mts— ; Mbh— ^T%gT:

The Bhadrakaras are apparently the same as the Madrakaras who were a
branch of the Salva tribe (supra, note 3) and inhabited the north-eastern part
of the Punjab or the adjoining regions. The Surasenas were a branch of the
Yadavas and lived about Mathura. See Raychaudhuri, op. cit.^ pp. 117 f.

5. Vy acde, Bmd-^t^TT: ; Vy 6— ^STT: ^31 J

PURANIG LIST OF PEOPLES

iToPTT: <Tcri : I

Tm^n^^srpsr^: n

TTsq-^ifi' spTqrar:® inwrsjfv sr^ftfrrar:® ii

Mts — ®( I ^ I - <.1 : ] Mbh — -H I'rt The Pataccaras are

known from Grd, I. 55. ii — M-=--=n<»i: TTc^^TT ^fVsnrn ^TTH^^^TT: I

tHd'i: 1 For the Yaudheya tribe of
Ord, see Raychaudhuri, op. cit,, pp. 457-58. The territories of the
Yaudheyas included the Bayana region of Bharatpur and Johiyabar on the
Satl^ . The Pataccaras are believed to have occupied parts of the Allahabad
and Banda Districts, or a tract near Gwalior. The Bodhas probably lived on
the eastern border of the Punjab.

r. Vy a — * — drd 1 :
c d «— f^^gnsurr; c (v.i.) « (v.i.)—

«(v.l.) jt^|S5=sf;

Mk — ; Mts — The first name

is either Matsya (Jaipur-Alwar region) or Vatsa (Allahabad region). Gf.
Raychaudhuri, op. cit.y pp. in f. Kirata—Hamalayan mountaineers; cf. the
name of the Kirantis who once reigned over a large portion of Nepal. The
Kulyas were probably tJtie people of the present Kulait region on the upper
Ravi.

2. Vy, JVtk, Bmd, Mts — I : 5 Mts c (v.l.)

; Mbh— The reading is supported

by Grd, I- 55*1 1, quoted at p. 30, note 5* The Kuntis were a branch of the
Yadava tribe living apparently not far from the Mathura region. The Kasis
lived about Varanasi (Banaras) . This Rosala is U ttara-Rosala with its capital
at Ayodhya (in the Fyzabad Dist.). See Raychaudhuri, op. cit.^ pp. 8 ff., 84 £f.

3. Mts — ; Mk a c (v.l.) —

Bmd.— Vy cde (v.l.)— ^

*— 3r4qT^;f55-^T^

The Bhulihgas were a branch of the ^alva tribe; cf. p. 30, note 3. The
Avantas are apparently the same as the Avantis who lived in West Malwa
and had their chief city at Ujjayini. Gf. Raychaudhuri, o/?. cit.^ pp, i22-i33.

4. Mk— Bmd, Vy TFr^*|^ b—

a ^ ; Mts — Magadha= Patna and Gaya
Districts of Bihar; cf. Raychaudhuri, op. cit.^ pp. 94 ff. The Andhakas were
a branch of the Yadava tribe and possibly lived originally not far from
Mathura. Later they appear to have migrated towards Kathiawar.

5. Mk — ; Vy, Bmd, Mts— |

Cf. p. 46, note 5.

6 . Mk, Vy, Bmd— ; Mts— STT^RT: ' q f^^ ' Idd 1 :.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

^ sr%^ ^FftriT:®

II Udicya {Uttarapatha)

3 rT<"RH^

^nwmrr:’

srnftrr:

^rSPf^s q-^,3qT^q-4-?3fb^^7;9

1. The following lines including those referring to Govardhana are
omitted in some of the Vy Mss. The verse is quoted in Km.

2. Vy a-~W^^ 5, « (v.I.)—

^r^TFT 5 ; Mk a— nr^;

Bmd — 'dTf'Ci^i 5 > “■ — 'H Sahya==the Western

Ghats excluding the Travancore hills.

3. Mk, Vy, Bmd— Mts— ^ jftSTT^

The Puranic passage further refers to the holy place called Govardhana near
Nasik on the Godavari river. Cf. note on the Godavari bclow^ Ch. IV, See.
V. Vy a reads after the above —

4 twfr gTET fgfw: 1

Trafsrarsf ?^s 3 t sftq^rqwrr 11
^'<fM 5 T gifsRT^sg^rrfrg-r: 1

3 Fg-: 5 ? 33 Fflt 5 n^%g' 51 # II

Bmd has practically the same reading and Mts only slight variation.
This tradition regarding the creation of a pleasure garden by Bharadvaja for
Rama’s wife seems to refer to the stay of Dasarathi Rama and his wife Sita
in the Nasik region and to support the location of Janasthana and Pahcavati
in the same area. The modified text of the Mka has half a verse in place
of the said two stanzas, which speaks of Govardhana as the city of Bhargava
(i.e. Parasurama) apparently through confusion.

4. Vy, Bmd— 'Tf^< 5 q-l 14 % ^"■c^driAT ; Mk, Mts— TfsTS^IT’Tft'

5. MkjVy, Bmd, Mis — g"

6. Mk, Vy ac, Bmd, Mts, Vmn «l (ci«M IM Vy b —

=f I I (v.l.) — q | =t> l ValhIka=modern

Balkh area in the northern part of Afghanistan. The Vatadhanas lived
in the Punjab-Rajasthan region and had a settlement at Madhyamika near
Ghitor (Mbh, II. 29. 7). See Moti Chandra, G^og. Ec Stud.^ pp. 27-28, 31-32.

7. Mk, Vy., Bmd, Mts— arnflrT-' J Vmn a — 3 r 4 t?T:

^ 3 rf 4 '^1- '=bl'»o 1 *t'^r--For the Abhlras who lived to the north
of the R^putana desert, see Sircar, Suo. Sat., pp. 242 f. We may also think of
Abiravan between Herat and Kandahar which may have been the original
home of the Abhix'as. In the 3rd century A.D., there was an Abhira kingdom
in the north-western Deccan. Kalatoyaka=Kalat in Baluchistan.

Mk — Vy aede, Bmd —

Vy b omits ; Mts a — ^TSTT^, he —

Vixin—^VTU^mmm The Sudras

Hved near the Abhiras; cf. Sircar, op. ciL, p. 242. Aparanta=5Aparita»=
P^andhra may be Greek Paraitakene in the lower Helmund valley. As the
^dras are mentioned below separately (p. 34, note 2) , we may possibly suggest
K^udra or ICsudraka (Greek Oxydrakai) living about the Montgomary Dist.
See Raychaudhuri, op. cit., p. 205. Otherwise there would be two iSudra
tei:xitories (cf. Sodrai in Northern Sind) .

9 - Mk fld, Vy be (v.L) — R*«r 4 ^ pJ^ cfj j : j Vy aede —

PURANIG LIST OF PEOPLES

TfF'cTRT (

2 ?Rr?' 3 rr; ff^TF^T^s IjFf’JHiT:* ii

FFTST ^■ 4 +<J-+'U® 'ti^'M'l I

wfn^'f;"('; ; Mk be. Bind — 4 <?«ej |i!ix( 4 ^'fv 3 'i 7 r: ; Mts— (ij'^ j ;
Vmn — Pahlava=the Pahlavis or Sassanians of Persia.
Garmakhandika=people of Samarkand.

1 . Mk acd, Vy, Bmd^ Mts, Vmn — ^nTF^TRT J Mk if — ^^TpSTRT
Tf^^fS^^.Gandhara=t 2 ie Rawalpindi and Peshawar Districts. Gf. Raychau-

dhuri, op, cit,^ pp. 124 f. The ancient capitals of the country were Taksasila
in the Rawalpindi Dist. and Puskalavati (Gharsadda near Peshawar), and
Udabhandapura (Und near Attock) in the early medieval period. Yavana=
Indo-Greek settlements in West Pakistan and adjoining lands, one of them in
the Kandahar region according to the evidence of the Graeco -Aramaic
edicts of Asoka. Cf Sircar, op, cit,^ P* 3^? below, Ch. XIV.

2. Mk, Bmd, Mts ; W aede, Mts t (v.L).

Vmn — ; Vy b — . According to Alb.
Tnd,^ I, pp. 259-60, 300, Sauvira included Multan and Jahravar which latter
lay about fifty miles below the junction of the Jhelam and the Ghenab.
Sindhu lay to the west and Sauvira to the east of the lower Indus. Madra=s
district round Sialkot (ancient Sakala).

3. Mk — ^rdS'jji: ; Vy aede — ;

tf (V.l.)— wr: -^^r: Bmd— iwy: ; Mts—

c (v.l.)— ^Rr 3 ^(^:) Vy

The ancient Kunindas are supposed to be represented by the

modern Kunets of Kulu and the Simla region ; but they formerly appear to have
extended up to the Saharanpur and Ambala Districts where their coins have
been discovered in large numbers. See Smith, Cat,^ p. i6i. Satadruja=
people of the Satlaj valley.

4. Bind— tTRSrr ; Mk— ; Vy aede—

’rferr ^^ts — e (v.i.) — ti^FiT

Omitted in Vy b. The reading is supported by Mbh, II. 32. 12,

while Bs, XIV. 33, suggests which is also supported by Km- The

Paxadas were the^Parthians oflChorasan, who settled in West Pakistan- The
Harahunas or Harahuras were probably a branch of the Huns who subjuga-
ted the whole land from Central Asia to Central India about the end of
the 5th century A D. Moti Chandra locates the Harahuras in the Herat
region {op. cit.^ p. 66).

5. Mk— Vy <z— FFTST J c*— TTTHT

; Bmd. — ^TTqpcrrT Mts— Vmn—

Omitted in Vy b. Levi locates the Ramathas between
Ghazni and Wakhan 1918, p. 126). The Ruddhakatakas may have

lived in the gold-producing Rudok area of Tibet.

6. Mk— g^nrrf^RiT: ; Bmd— Vy ac—

%WT g^nrrf^: ; «— ^^qTiT=hi: ;

GEOGRAPHY OF ANGIENr AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

w-in i?£a ' f <? 4 in T II

=cflrri^4^' pTTR=^® ^Tir^ fRT:’

6 __^% 3 rr '

Vmn. a — '

(v-l.)

; Vye (v.l.)-

-%W

Tirfor^:- Omitted in Vy For the ICekayas, cf, Raychaudhuri, op. cit,,
pp. 52 ff. They lived in the Jhelam District of West Pakistan and had their
capital at Girivraja (Girjak or Jalalpur on the Jhelam). The Dasamanakas
may have lived in the Dasht valley in Kalat*

I, Mk:, Vy acde:, Bmd— ;
Vmn Omitted in Vy b. For the Ksat;*s (Greek

see

Xathroi) living near the confluence of the Ghenab and the Indus^
Raychaudhuri, op. cit.^ p. 207.

2. Mk, Vy acde, Bmd—

Vmn — ^rqr Omitted in Vy b. See p. 32, note 8 above.

3. The following two lines are omitted in Mts and partly in Vy b.

4. Mk, Vy acde, Bmd, Vmn — The Kambojas
had settlements in the land extending from Kashmir to Kandahar, See Gh.
XII below. The Daradas lived round Daratpuri in the upper valley of
the Kishengahga in Northern Kashmir. Some scholars locate the Kambojas
near Badakhshan beyond the Hindu Kush. See Chapter XII below.

5. Mk abc—'Sf^T ; Vy J Mk d, Bmd

Ahgaloka is also mentioned elsewhere in the Purai^as; cf. Gh. IV, Sec. X-B.
Varvara reminds one of Barbaricum, a port on the principal mouth of the
Indus in the early centuries of the Christian era. But apparently the same
people is also located elsewhere; cf. loc. cit. Ahgaloka may be the land
of the Agalassoi of the Greeks. But they lived in the land between the
Jhelam and the Ghenab.

6. Mk ad, Bmd, Vy e (v.l. )— ^ I ; Vy aod^ —

5’Tra^; 6c— =sftd'i<i^'=r ^^Risj-i' ; vmn— %Tirp^^ g^ fKi^-^ '.

the Tibe to- Chinese peoples, I <, K — cf. Tukharistan of the Arabs which
included the old Bactria and indicated the mountainous country on both sides
of the middle O^sus as far as Badakhshan, though the country to the south of the
river was usually understood by the name (Wellhausen, TAe Arab Kingdom
and its Fall, p. 430). For the Ginas, seejarret, *Ain-i-Akbart, II, pp. 118-19;
also below. Chapters IV (Sec. X-B and G) and V (Country No. 33) .

7. Mk abc—^^ ^TlTcft
Bmd— ^^RJrjVmn

Vy aede, Mk d —

^TfRfr ; Vy I

(? ), — ^^TSTKl: .

PURANIG UST OF PEOPLES

^Lq|ct,1^-,j4 (5f^? )j|J?r|15:^3 3lT^: II

®3ftwr(3fk?rr? srraRT:' i

1, 3 Vtk, Vy acde, Bmd— STTW^ ^<SMT; ; Mts <j— SSWT^ >R5F5TT: ;

ae— apnft^r ; Vmn— anwr: ^nr^sTwr: ; vy i— srrw^

2. Mk a«d— qi^Wr:, ^ g^^T^^FT: ; Vy acde,

Bmd— spcg^^irT^ ^i%W: ; c (v- 1 .)— $r^ 55 T: ^-

;Vmn, Mk c (v.l. )— 5 R®r 5 n 5 =^ Both Prasthala and

Puskalavataka are mentioned in the list ofBs, i6- 26. Ram, IV. 43. ii locates
Prasthala in the north, Puskala=people of Puskalavatl, modern Frang-
Gharsabda-Mir Ziyarat region near Peshawar. Daseraka=Maru, i.e, the
Marwar region in Rajasthan.

3- Mk — ^ 5 Tq 7 ^: Vy acde^ Bmd — ;

Mts a W4-m=hlW<?4d(-i|lit-q, ^^J-qjchlfdWlH'IW, <^(v.l.)—

; Vy e (v.L) — ^ =h (’^rO I ^ 5 TqT^-
^ . Lampaka= modern. Laghman in

Afghanistan. Xhe Avaganas or Afghans are mentioned in Bs.

4. Mk— Vy acde, Bmd— tf) '^fS: ^5

Vy «(v-l-)— Mts-^^jcirr: ^

5 rr^ 55 -:

Vmn-

Jaguda= Southern Afghanistan with

its capital at Ghazni. The Gtilikas were the Sogdians living to the north of
the Oxus. See Bagchi in JDL, Vol. XXI.

5. The following three lines are omitted in Mts and Vy h,

6. Mk a — ^

; Vy a — 3 T M^ Bmd Vy cds

Vmn — [^-d( I Aurasa=people of Urasa, modern

Hazara District. See below, Gh. IV, Sec. X-D.

7. Mk, Vy acde, Bmd, Vmn — Hi ^"4 'STTcFT*. P- 3^5 note i.

8. Mk d iH^l I ^d+i H(T^^ i Vy acde, Bmd- — rflFRTr

Vmn — ^Frar ^" 4 'tTi’^T^^. See below, p. 45, note 5. Hamsamarga= Humza
in North-Western Kashmir according to some.

9- Mk at, Vy acde, Bmd— <l’(rcl ^‘Ul l^d'-CT J
^t^orr^sqT, -=*5 Rql'^T^^fl'iTTRr^ ; Vmn—

Kasmira— people of the upper Vitasta valley. A settlement of the Tahgana or
Taiigana people probably had its headquarters at Tahganapura near
Joshimath in the Garhwal District, U.P. {fip. Inde, Vol. XXXI, p. 286).

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

3 ? 0 Tf (fWT? ) =^2 I

yc{V=iaTl^® STTW^T II

III

Prdcya {Purva'-de.ia)

I r^s^'f^fTpcte |

1 . Mk — I : ; Vy a^ Bmd— I I § ^ ^ J Vy

cde — I } Vmn a — b

J ^ (v.L) the Kulutas of K.ulu in the

Klangra Dist., see Allan, Cat. C A.I.^ p. c* for the Bahikas of the Punjab, see
Sircar, SeL Ins., I, 1942, p. 276 note; also below, Gh XV.

2. Mk cc— 5 pirf % (f_3?0Tf = 3 (; Bmd, Mk b—

:OTf 'A=lT’{:d 4 ^ =^; Vmn — •egcljdl:; Vy acde — =^.
The reading suggested by another passage is (p. 45, note 8; cf.

Kirfel, op. cit.^ p. 45) . The Harsacarita places the Hunas in Uttarapatha
apparently somewhere about the Western Panjab. Darva=people of Darva-
bhisara which roughly comprised the Punch and Naushera regions between
the Jhelam and the Ghenab.

3. Mk a6c— of— ,* Vy acde,

Bmd— Mts— q^ Vmn has

rather freely— -H | : qrq^lqT^ Cf. below, p. 46,

note 5,

4. Vy acde, Bmd, Mts— 511 = 5 ^ 7 ^ f^T^ST^’; Mk— STT^aTT^T

f^T^tsT Cf. below, p. 46, note 6. '

3 . Mk aic— Wt<'f>l 3T7TT ^^' <^ 1 :, c (v.l.)—

3 Fhl=lR-=» Vy acde, Bmd — ^p^TWl: ; Vy b — 31 ^-

<^T5bl ^S=by=M:; Mts aS— ^_3r^ ^^Tw:.

v.l.^r^ ^ sr^ ^ ; Vmn— ^ ^^r:,

Anga and Vahga may have been separated from Ahgeya and Vangeya
through confusion (cf. below). Mudgaraka (modern Monghyr) is the same
^ Mudg^a of Km and M idgagiri of inscriptions. Anga=East Bihar, and
Vanga= South and South-East Bengal. For the Anga capital Campa near
Bhagalpur, see Sircar, Gosm. Geog. E. Ind. Lit., pp. 15a, 155- For the Vanga
capi al near about the mouth of the Bhagirathi, see below. Chapter XIII.

6. Mk « (V.I.)— ; Vy acde.

Mi rf— SFiaTIir^f^^,; ; Mts— 3 F?rPir<.c|fqPl<) ; Vmn—

tfRIY' » Vy 6— Sn^RT^I^firqr:. The Antargiri and Bahirgiri may be located
towards the north of Pragjyoti§a (Assam) on the strength of Mbh, 11.27.1-3.

PTJRANIO LIST OF PEOPLES

«9rfftTTTr srf^^spqrs i

I. The line is omitted in Mts ab.

2. Mk ac-^m M-=i T^^rr:, z-— ^-^(v-i-)

d— cT^rr f ipTr: ; \-> acde—^^ ygimim:, ^—trarr

srsTTr^ti-y i; ; Bmd— ^ 5rw ; \-mn— srwrr^^rr: ; Mts c—

^cTi *'<»q'<i'Hld'^*n. The correct leading of the names and their
identification are doubtful.

3. Mk abc—m ifHj ^ 1 ?t=) rd <+. 1 <■ (v.l.)— ’RTT v^stt d—

tT^ysrlficj-d: ; Vy aoZe— f (v.I.)— TT^ 5 ^f%Fr:,

'h«qrin<i:, z, — ■Hl-rtcil Mts c — ' 4 +i'h I ■Hhejciul'hi: ;

Bmd — +il«'’Al J?i'? 4 d'P*('hl;; Vmn The Maladas

(people of Malda in W^’cst Bengal ?) and Mallavartakas are also known from
Km, Gf. p. 42, note 8 below.

4. This line is omitted in Vy b,

5- Mk acd — ^T^frcnr: acde^ Bmd, Vmn a. Mk b —

W^TrTTT: srfq'sl'Mi: ; Vmn b — l^ftrRj: SiTfw^T: ; Mts abc —

STf^^T^TT-j c (v.l.) — ^r^TT^TT- Srf^^f^Tt- The reading ITl 't. is not
supported by Km which reads (the ancient name of Radha in South-

West Bengal) and or ^^flrTT side by side. Gan Brahmottara be

associated with the name of Burma which is derived from the Mrama^ one of
the three tribes that migrated into Burma and ultimately lent their name as
a national designation to all Burmese ? But cf. below, Gh. IV, See- B,
and for a Barmhattar in Sarkar Satgaon, see Jarret, op, cit,, p. 141.
Kirfel {op,cit,, p. 46) has also and It is difficult to be

sure about the name and its location.

6. Mk abc — ^bKl d — ; Vy acde —

Bmd— ^luabc—^T^ ; c-(v.L)_^TF^-*

HiWI % t: ; Vmn a —

b The correct reading of the names and their

location are doubtful.

7. Mk— TfsTT^; Yy^WF^TfmW^ ■, Bmd—

»T>fT^; Mts— V mr,—

. Pragjyotis a —modern Gauhati area of Assam and the adjoin-
ing region originally known as an Udicya territory. Paundr a— people of
North Bengal with their city called (later modern

Mahasthan in the Bogra Distiict).

8. Mk, Vy acde, Bmd, Mts, Vmn — I \ ^ I * J Vy b —

3frfsr^l I ’NRtI* f^ci ={ii I : • Videha==a people living in North Bihar and the
adjoining region with their capital at Mithila, modern Janakpur in the

38 geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

srrsqr sffrt: 5 f?prr :2 n

Daknnapatha {JDak$inatya')

^ 5 riTPTsr^r%?r:® i
5^4 1 <r I

Nepalese Tarai. Tamraliptaka —people of the district round modern Tamluk
in South-West Bengal

I . Mk ahc — l J d — ^^^1 ] Vy —

Bmd — + 11^1 n I : ; Mts a — —

^1 l^C-R KT^ ; Vmn — ^ For the Mallas of the

district round ICusinagara (Klasia in the Deoria Oistrict), see Raychau-
dhuri, op, cit,, pp. io6 f. Note that Magadha was sometimes located in
Madhyadesa (p. 31, note 4) and sometimes in Pracya. Vj which locates the
Andhras and Salvas (cf. p. 36, note 5,) in East India apparently relied
on such erroneous texts of the Puran as. For Gonarda which belonged to East
India only theoretically, see JAHRS^ Vol. IX, Part iii, pp. i ff., and below,
Ch. XIX.

а. Mk, Vy n, Bmd, Mts— W^=FRT: F^fTcTT: ; Vmn— ST l ’ ^ ’ i

'T^rfe^; Vy cde—^y^\ ^FTcTT:.

3. The following line is omitted in Vmn.

4. Mk, Vy, Bmd— ar^rn^ ; Mts— 5 n=mT:.

5. Mk, Vy, Bmd, Mts— ^ ^u ri Hg T ? I f^d :. Cf. p- 46, notep,

б. Mk ac, Vmn — ^u>s i ^ ^ ; Mk b ;

Vy, Bmd, Mts, Mk d — q. The Pandyas and Keralas
lived about the Madurai-Ramanathapuram-Tirunelveli region and the
Malayalam-speaking area respectively.

7. Mk ac — ^jb —

] Vy, Bmd — ^ ; Mts— ;

Vmn— -S I g <ri| I TT^^.For the reading vS ( ^^^which seems to be a
later emendation, see Bs^ 16. 3. The Colas lived about the Tanjavur and
Tiruchirappalli Districts of Madras State. Kulya—Kollam (Quilon) ?

8. Mk— ^^nsTT Vy, Bmd— Mts—

Vmn — Setuka=people ofSetu-
ban dha-Rames vara. Mu§ika=probably the people living on the banks of the
Musi now running by the town of Hyderabad (Raychaudhuri, op. cit.^ p.
80 ) . Another river of this name runs through the Nellore and Guntur Distric ts .

9. Mk ^TIR d— Vy aede—

; Bmd— I ^fFT^TRI^: ; Mts— ^rTl%r^%^T:j

PURANIC list of peoples

HPT%Tr: ^ sTTs:^; % ii«

Jllfoifil (ttW^T? sp y q qf TT ^fl^tTW^giTT:® I

(v.l.) — ^lpj|T>l: ^T+i:, J4^l qir^'Mfsi<t>i:; Vmn — ^■Hl <lctl ^T§T-
^rT>l- ; Vy b — 'ta-HHI iftlTilL The Vanavasafcas were the inhabitants of

modern Banavasi in the North Kanara District of Mysore. K.umara= people
of Gape Comorin called Kumara-dvipa.

1. Mk, Vy, Bmd, Vmn a— Mts a—

; Mk d, Vmn ^i%f^2f>i:.

Maharastra= modern Maratha country. ]Mahisaka= people of the ancient
Mahisa-visaya in Mysore or of Mahismati on the Narmada. See Ch- XVI
below.

2. Mk, Vy, Bmd, Mts, Vmn — Mts c (v.l.) —

Cl «• *

q The Kalihga country originally comprised the present

Puri and Ganjam Districts of Oiissa and the adjoining regions.

3- Mk— srnftrr: ; vy abe (v.i. ) , Bmd— sn^fftn: ;

Vy cde — ST^fiTr: ; Mts — ^ItPl'hi:; s

; Vmn — srnftrr*' Kavera==people living on the Kaverf^

4. Mka^r-~ ^1^^T : Mk d.Vy %;

Vyacde^ Bmd — STjd'bilT^-^ — Siido^ Vmn —

Savara foresters = the Saoras of Ganjam and Visa-

khapatnam.

5 . Mk abc—^T^^dC{ ; Vy ace,

Bmd — <jn?^"rdj[ f%VS£pFr^$t^: ; Vy ad — I : J Mts —
f jpS 3T gf^*f>T : ; Vmn — The reference is to the Pulindas

of the Vindhyan region. ^

6 . MkjVy bcde^Mts he, Vmn b — dU'dof> : J Vy Bmd,Mts a —

; Vmn a — The Prakritism in the form
is interesting to note. Vidarbha= modern Berar and the adjoining
regions. Dan^aka is the old name of parts of the Maratha country including
especially the Nasik District .

7 - The following lines together with the first line of the next Section
are omitted in Mts.

8 . Mk — Vy a — ^ <i\ cde —

qrf^fSfTr b recognises only; Bmd —

Paurika= people of Pur‘ in the IConkan- Maulika= people of Mulaka, the
district round Paithan on the Godavari in the Aurangabad District, Maha-

rashtra.

g. Mk, Vy ab, Bmd, Vmn b — ] Vy cde — [

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

^ (^? ) fwr: f'^55T SPSTT^ ^f^cfT I

^ %5tt® arq^Fcrr^T ii

Apardnta {Paicad-desa)

] Vmn a — Asmaka was contiguous to Mulaka
and had its capital at Paudanya, identified by Raychaudhuri with Bodhan in
the Nizamabad District of Andhra Pradesh. Bhogavardhana reminds us of
the Bhokardan Taluk of the Aurangabad District, Maharashtra*

1. Mk ac- 4 lwT: 3 ^*^:, 3 Fsrr:, d—

^■nd c-i ( ; Vy ace- — j ^fd 4 ‘tr 5’n«i

ar?^: ; STFW: ; Bmd— 5 “d'«T 3 T^ 7 r: ; Vmn—

^ 3 rp'=>rr:. K.uiitala=people of the region, around the

North KLanara District. The Andhra people lived in the lower valleys of the
Krishna and the Godavari rivers. Originally they appear to have spread over
large parts of the Central and Northern Deccan. For the !l^sikas on the
Krishna, see Sircar, SeL Ins>, P- 19S, note.

2. Mk — ; Vy acde^ Bmd — h —
^jf^TT dvi>''=hlf^'=hT: ; Vmn a — h

? =:the Nalas and Alupas ? ^3f^d:===:Sn'’»fVT ?

The Abhiras ruled in Maharashtra, but conquered the N agarjunikonda
valley for sometime about 278 A. D. {Ep- Ind.^ VoL 34, pp. 197 ff.).

3. Mk— Vy, Bmd— ^

Vmn has rather freely — ■^Tf^PTTWT ^*14 d I ) *

Al-Biruni wrongly recognises and ^feT( sic — ^ as two

janapadas of the South and refers to the following countries of the West as those
belonging to the South.

4. Mk afic— arr^RTT^ # ; ^_ 3 ^TqTrFdnFT f^sr ; Vy, Bmd—

1 Cf. below, p. 46, note 10.

5. The following line is omitted in Mts.

6. Mk— ; Vy acd—wf^^^TU:

^ro: =tir^ 4 nT:;Bmd, Vy b — i: ] Vmn —

§urparaka=Sopara to the north of Bombay. Kolavana—Kolapura (Kolha-
pur) or Kodagu (Coorg).

7. Mk aic— Vy acde-^^^:

S—firffMe'Adif: Bmd— frrf; Vmn—

y ^.The reading d l'»l'=t><iis supported by Bs, XIV. 1 1 and Mbh,
II. 31. 65 (where is a mistake for TalIkata=Talakad,

PURANlC LIST OF PEOPLES

3^ lii^d ? )« s f n"<w^i :5 I

^ =^T^® % =q'ififr< 4 ' 4 '^i:’ II

the Western Gahga capital which was really in the south. IDurga=: people
of the valley of the Durga, a tributaiy of the Sabarmati in Gujarat.

I - Mk — ; Vy acde^ Bmd — ;

Vy b—^WiW^ ( ? ) ; f^RT^TT^ ; Vmn—^tm-

For a river called in which the elephants

sported, see SeL Ins,^ 19425P. 453n. The Murala people is known to have come
into contact with Pratihara Mahipala I according to Rajasekhara’s Bdlahhdrata
or Pracandapdndava (N S.P. ed., I. 7) and with Kaiacuii Kama according to the
Bheraghat inscription {Ep. Ind,^ II, p. 1 1 ) . Paramara Sindhuraja (c. 995-1000
AD.) is represented in the .•Vhra^aAa^<2^M:<2r^^n^a (X. 14-20) as having defeated
the Muralas. The reading of the other names and their location are un-
certain.

2. Mk — 'Vy acde^BvaA — l^d iMti ; \ Vmn —

l — The reading of the names
and their location are uncertain-

3. Vmn has for the following two lines — ;^f^cY,{rdT:

4. Mk — Vy acde, Bmd — ^ J Mts —

Vy i— g-sqr « (v.I.) cfSTT 5

Tumbavana=Tumain in the Guna District of Madhya Pradesh.

5. Mk— ^ ; Vy b, Mts, Mk c (v.I.)— ^

^qr ; vy acde —-^^ qq ^ (v.i.)— ; Bmd— ^

^q’qyq • cf.Vmn — WfqqhMk d has, after this, the following

additional lines — ■<l^qSqrr:|

II 5'srraWfTl^W ^ llXhe second of

the three lines is taken out of the following Section. The Karaskaras are
known from Baudh, Dh, S,y 1-2. 14 — ^fpCgiq qrnC^qr^OT[

P I qd ti%% q ^fcqi qril Dey^s Geog.

Diet, identifies Karaskara with Karkal near Mangalore. But it is doubtful.

6. Mk— ^ =^P%;Vy, Bmd-^Fn%WRm^ ^

Vy a(v.l.)— =Tl 1 w+l«Sll 5 }^ ^ =^rF%,dtf% 4 >raT^ ^ =^rF^; Mts a—

^ l>c ^ N&ikya= people of Nasik in Maha-

rashtra. * ^

7. Mk, Vy b — ^ ; Bmd, Mts, Vy r</i?(v.L)— %

Vy ae — ^ q q ircKdRqT:- Uttara-Narmada= people living on the
northern bank probably of the lower Narmada.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Vindhyaprstha

I. Mk — ti+i l^ 4 i^ J Vy acd — ; Brad —
MtSjVy ^(v.L) — J Vmn — j Vy be —
^'H l§^n. The Prakritism in the form (pali W^W^)

for the Saaskritic ' 5 fT^=Fr^ is interesting to note. Bhrgiikaccha= Broach.
Maheya=:people of the Mahi valley. Both the tracts are in Gujarat.

a, Mk, Vmn, Vy 6—^ Mts— ^ Vy

acde, Bmd — SI Sarasvata=peopIe of the Sarasvatl (Sarsuti)

valley in the Eastern Punjab or in Gujarat (cf. Jarrett, ofi. cit.^ p. 229).

3. Mk — Vy, Bmd —

Mts a— ; Vmn—

Kacchiya=peopIe of Kutch. Surastra= South Kathiawar.

4. Mk acd, Vmn — Mk h — 3 |dirc 4 I^'^ [^^r J

Vy acde (v.l.)— Bmd, Vy «— ; Mts—

SilnrtT ^ ; Vy 6 — SPT^g^^Sf: (sic) Atiarta=district round

Dvaraka. Arbuda= Mount Abu in the Sirohi District, Rajasthan.

5. Mk, Vye (v.l.) — ■^RTFsTT^; Vy acde, Bmd — ^F'T-

TldlS' 4 ; Mts — 3 |M<(Ttl<r^. Vmn has rather freely

ftWr STTdMdt ^ 5 RT:.

6. Mk Qcd— -sgtr f% 7 Sit|vfifrfyd:, i,—^T%, ; Vy acde,

Bmd— -sgT^ Mts— ^gTSf ^ (<rIi|'^rRf?r:.

7. Vy b omits several lines and makes the janapadas mentioned in the
following two Sections as those belonging to the West. See p. 40, note 3.

8. Mk a — 1 -5^ j Vy acde, Bmd, M-ts —
; Vmn — ^ I ^ j ; Vy b —

See above, p. 37, note 3. The Malavas (Malloi of the Greeks) lived on the
lower Iravati (Ravi) in the Punjab in the fourth century B.G. Later they are
found settled in Rajasthan and ultimately they gave their name to modern
Malwa in Central India. Karusa, which is also called Brhadgrha, is the same
as the present Shahabad District of Bihar. The Maladas may have lived in the
Malda, District of West Bengal. Lama Taranatha who locates a Malava
country near Prayaga seems to have confused the Maladas with the Malavas
of Western India on the strength of erroneous Puranic passages quoted in
the present note. Gf. Bhandarkar’s List, No. 1068.

9. Mk — ^ ; Vy ae — ^ ; Bmd,

PURANIC LIST OF PEOPLES

cfrwr: I

Mts, Vmn, Vy bed — The name Mekala is still preserved
in that of the present Maikal range which is the connecting link between the
Vindhyas and the Satpuras and stretches from the Khairagarh area in M.P.
to the Rewah region (Raychaudhuri, Stud, Ind. Ant,^ p. 134). The Mekalas
lived near the Amarkantak hills. Utkala was the western fringe of the
Midnapur District and the adjoining parts of Orissa.

I- The following line is wrongly placed in Section V in Mk d,

2. Mk, Bmd, Vmn, Vy d — J Vy ace —

h .'StHTT? I ; Mts — ^THTT ^^TTWf^^.Dasarna formed

parts of modern East Malwa (cf. the river of the same name in Ch. IV, Sec.lII)
and the adjoining regions. It was also known as Akara and had its capital at
Vidisa. The Uttamakas may be the Uttamabhadras of the Pushkar region.

3. Mk— Vy, Bmd, Mts—

Vmn — : ^FT^. The Bhoj as originally lived in Berar, but
later founded a kingdom in the Goa region. The Kiskindhakas may be the
people of Kiskindha identified with modern Kalyanpur in the south of the
Udaipur division, Rajasthan, and not the well-known Kiskindha in Mysore
State. Sec Sircar, 'The Guhilas of Kiskindha^ p. 34.

4. Mk, Vmn b — ; Vy aede — ;
Bmd — ; Vmn a — ; Mts ac —

h Vy b — recognises only- Both

the names could be spelt either with the dental or with the palatal sibilant,
Tosala was no doubt the district round the city of Tosali (modern Dhauli,
near Bhubaneswar in tfie Puri District, Orissa) . In the early medieval period,
the 'Xok^Xz, janapada is known to have been divided into Uttara-To^ala and
Daks ina-Tos ala. Kosala here is no doubt Daksina-Kosala, identified with
the modern Raipur-Bilaspur-Sambalpur region of M. P. and Orissa. See
Raychaudhuri, PHAI^ pp. 252, 452.

5. Mk a— Vy— -^ 5 ^
^ fe-hi ^ g rr; Bmd, Mts— %Tr Vmn— %Tr; #f^v 75 'iTRia)r.

The Traipuras were the people of Tripura or Tripuri, modern Tewar in the
Jabalpur District. The Vaidisas were the people of Vidisa, modern Besnagar
nr^r Bhilsa in Madhya Pradesh.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

f^TW: ^ II

3snTq-pc^fa^^-<|^igf4 gjg._^.5 j

I. Mk abc —

Bmd— ^(TTR^I^TI^^jMts a—

Vy acde^

Vmn — ( ^ 4 -c^ ^1 ; V^y b — One of the names appeals

to be a mistake for modern Tumain in th^ Gnna Dist., M. P,

The other locality may be Tummana ( — Tuman), 45 miles north of Ratanpur
in the Bilaspur Dist.^ M. P.

2. Mk a— trs^f^TET^:

Vy acffe, Bmd— Vy e (v.l.)

Mts a 5 — q-<?J(qi fipsr^; q^iTTlT ^ ; Vmn a — ?Er^,

b — ^*?sr: 'B'i^; Vy b — q^^TTFIT: The Nisadhas axe associated

with the Pariyatra and identified with the Bhils of Rajasthan. Tney may
have also lived about Nalapura, modern Narwar in the Shivapuri Dist., M.
P. The other people’s name and location are uncertain.

3- The following four lines are omitted in Vy h,

4. Mk aW— 3 Tw^ 3 n^ 5 fe^TTT 5 ?q, c (vdo— ;

Vyacde, Bmd, Vmn — ; Vye(v.l.) 3 TWqT? 5 f^ 5 %TT^ J

Mts |i Omitted in Vy b, Anupa was on the Narmada

with the city of Mahismati (modern Mandhata in the Nimar District, M.P. )
as its capital. The Haihaya king Arjuna, son of Krtavirya, ruled at Mahismati.
Like the Bhojas, Vitihotras and Avantis mentioned in the Section, the Tundi-
keras were a branch of the Haihayas. According to the Puranas (Mts, 43.
48-49; Vy, 94. 31-52; Bmh, 13. 203-04; Pdm, Srsti-khanda, 12. 33-36 ;
Hv, I. 33. 51-32), the Haihayas were subdivided into five clans, viz.,
Vitihotra (wrongly called some texts), Bhoja, Avanli, Tundikera

(called a.nd

T in some texts ) and dl Pargiter

(AIHT^ pp. 98, etc.) refers to the name of the Haihaya clan

some texts as Id I*, SpdWTorr:, Haihayas were

themselves a branch of they adavas. See, e.g., Vsn, IV. Gh. ii. Sections i ff.

5. Vy acde, Bmd — <Clfd ^5l| Mk — ,*

Mts : j Vmn — ^ ^ 'M h Omitted in Vy b.

The Avanti people lived in West Malwa and the Vitihotras probably in the
same territory or on the Narmada to the south of the Avantis.

PURANIG LIST OF PEOPLES

qlr sTfmr: u

VII

Parvata (^Himalaya)

31^ %5rT^T 5r^=JirfiT3 Sr* i

ffTO^TO ^^TRTiTf:® It

gnrsnravfTT^^’ gwr 3[raf: i

1. Mk, Vy, Bmd— ^fTprSTT: J Mts-^^ ^EfTcTr:- Vmn

has rather freely — I

2. Mk, Vy, Bmd, Mts — f^SipT^pT^Tfe*!-.

3. Mk, Vy acde, Bmd, Mts— S^ft ^ ^ 1 ? ar^T^lTTfir; Vmn— STRIT^
M sr^^'M (■H-- The reference below is to the Himalayan peoples.

4. Mk,Vy acde, Bmd, Mts— ^ ; Vmn— %.

5. Mk — jfl^Kl ; Vy acde, Bmd — ^•y+il^lT:; Mts —

ffTOfrrr: iEi#Tn^; vmn tt— ffTOfTT f^nTPTf:, i—fjRTfirr ^^prht?:.

The Hamsamargas of the Himalayan region are also known from other pas-
sages; cf. below. Chapter IV, Section viii; also above, p. 35, note 8. They
had a settlement in North-West Kashmir. The name and location of the other
people are uncertain.

6. Mk— ^T^fWT: ’ 3 ^:; Vyacd — ^t3T:, e(v.l.)—

^rqRg-^wwr:, ^un^-^-un: i^wr; ; Bmd—

I va I : ift i:i I : ; Mts — ^M^TT STRlRcT^; vmn —

These Kurus are doubtless the celebrated IJttara-Kurus living in the Hima-
layan region. ThcKhasas (identified w’ith the modern Khakkas) lived about
Kashmir. Mts, Vy and Bmd refer to a Himalayan locality called
Sfqq* (cf. Chapter IV, Section X-6). For the Tanganas, see above p. 35,

note 9.
7

Mk. I I ^ acde — j^-cf ^ j Bmd, Vy h —

Mts. Vmn, Vy e (v.l.j Both

and ^ofSTT^X^ situated in the Himalayan region are elsewhere mentioned
in Mts, Vy and Bmd (cf. Chapter IV, Section X — G and H ). Ram.,
IV. 40- 25 locates io. the eastern direction, probably in the eastern

Himalayas.

8. Mk a — ; 3 ‘Wf '=i ti «t» I * \ bed — ; Vy acde —

p-tifj* ; Bmd — Mts a —

Ac-^ 3 ?irf ar^ ^ET^T^wr:; Vmn-^ 3 ?jrf: '^^RTT: g'gprr: ; Vy 5— gm
'fTg^^T: ; e (vl.) — gWI 5 =ff: 'dgg'M:. For the Hunas
and Darvas, see p. 36, note 2 above. For the Huhukas of the Himalayan
region, see Chapter IV, Section X — H.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

VIII

Condensed List

Trsq%rR3ft wn:^ i
^4 ^^1 1 f4=M ^nT¥’Tf%=nrf%*T:^ ii

5afr:(TF^T:) ’T«T£rT(WTf|;^T) ® I

I. Mk ac, Vy— ; Mk rf— nT 5 ?^T^=#^;
Bmd — fil'iltff ■Hl'AAt'l^'^^ ; Mts — f^HTclf TTJ^^n^^.Vmn has rather freely —
tff^RTT: Trigarta= modern Jalandhar

region. For the Sapta-Mdlava or seven localities called Malava, see Ray-
chaudhuri, PHAI^ p- 492, note. Maiava in our text may be the same as the
coimtry of that name identified with the cis-Satlaj Districts of the Punjab
together with some Himalayan territory.

2. Mk,Vy acde ^Brnd Vy b — l-H 1.*

Mts — ^ 3 ^. i^iratas —Himalayan mountaineers: cf. the name of
modern Kiranti, etc. See above, p. 31, note i. The reading (for ^THTT)

is supported by some passages; cf. Chapter IV, Section X — H. See also p. 35,
note 8 above.

3. This later list is very carelessly compiled and probably had some
mistakes even in the original draft.

4. Vsn, Krm — Bmd —

See above, p. 30, note 2.

5. Vsn, Xrm, Bmh — Madhyadesa lay between the
Hast Punjab and Eastern U.P., and between the East Punjab and the Oxus
valley lay Udicya whicn was believed to have originally comprised the
Himalayan region including Pragjyotisa (Assam).

6. Vsn, Xrm, Bmh | ^ . Originally Pracya or Purva-

desa included the lands lying to the east of Eastern U.P.

7. Vsn, Krm, Bmh— Kamarnpa (also called Pragjyo-
ti§a)= Assam.

8- Vsn, Krm— 3 <i|T: ^T^TSTT: ; Bmh— ?TiTSrr:.

See above, pp. 38-39-

9. Vsn, Krm— arrf^*^iK' 4 R-^ tucRntjc; Bmh — ^ 4 ' 2 iT:-
Dak|inatya or Daksipapatha 1 ^ to the south of the Vindhya or the Narmada.

to. Vsn — ; Bmh — cT^rnTT^WT: <1 1 : ; Krm

Aparanta lay to the west of Malwa. See p.^42,note 3.
”• Vsn, Bmh, Krm ah (va.)-^; 5 pftTI^cr«TT^?T: ; Krm he—
See p. 43, note 4; for jgudra and Abhlra in Udicya,

cf. p. 32 notes 7“8.

PURAMG I^IST OF PEOPLES

41X1 : gwr:^ ^Ue<=! i: ti

^ ^i 'Cf'H I ( xf ? i^<sit> 5 r:® ^[ n

I * ^ — 't>l'^^ r ; KLrm a — 4^i<?5cf>x b H I <^1^1

v.l. — Bmh-— 4 nwr

Xi^ciR-^q'. Maruka=«=Maru or Marwar (above, p. 35, note 2) . For Malava^
see below. Chapter XI I.

3- Vsn, Krm— fWT: J Krm J (v.l.)—

^T^^oiT:, c (v.l.) — ^=n<i; ; Bmh —

See above, p. 33, notes 2 and 4.

4. Vsn, Bmh— ; Knna-^lle<i: +l»^R=mTf 5 nT:,
v.i.^ ^ (v.l.)— iiTI5r^T: See above,

p. 30, note 3; p. 33, note a.

5. Vsn, Bmh— Tr 5 ’TTr«TTW‘i{ 1 »' 8 |C 6 l': ; Krm a-^qSTRPTT^W^:,

be — -Hi si K I H I td I '■^T'* . See above, p. 30, note 4. For th eAmba^thas

living on the lower Ghenab, see Raychaudhuri, PHAI^ pp, 206-07; Sircar,
Stud. Soc.Adm. Anc. Med, Ind,, Vol. I, pp. io6ff.

6. Krm — Vsn, Bmh — qj

Parasikas (Persians) are not mentioned in the bigger list or in any work
earlier than Mbh, VI. 9. 65-66, and Kalidasa’s i2<3^Awz.Yz;/z,fa, IV. 60. They are
also mentioned in the Pddatdditaka-bhdna (5th century), the Micdrardk^asa
(c. 6th century) and the Gaudamha (8th century). See Sue. Sdt,^ p, 326;
JRAS, 1946, p. 51*

Chapter IV

PURANIC LIST OF RIVERS

For introductory remarks and list of abbreviations, see
above, pp. 26 ff. ; Sircar, Cosm., etc., p. 53, p. 55, note 88.

TEXT

Bmd, Ch. 49, vv. 28-42; Krm, I, Gh. 46 (Ch. 47 in some
versions), w. 28-39; Mk, Gh 57 (Gh. 54 in s'me versions), vv.
17-30 ; Mts, Gh. 114, w. 20-32; Vmn, Gh. 13, w. 20-33; Vy,
Gh. 45 (of Book I according to some versions; cf. also Sachau,
Alb, Lid., I, pp- 357-39), w. 94-107. Gf. Kirfel, Bhdratavarsa,
pp. 38-42; also Fi-n jDAm, I. 10. 3-9.; Sircar, Cosm., etc., pp-

83 fif.

Himavat

sffVTT I

1. The following line is omitted in K.rm. A little independence as

regards the order of enumeration of the rivers issuing from the Himavat
(Himalaya) is noticed in Mk and,to a greater degree with deliberate omissions
and commissions, in Vmn. Mk has ^ TTT I

ii s^ym’TT (c-^rg-o) =g grfen-

(d-^o) {d~^o) I fggRTT (/b-°gT)

grqr II =gTqgT ii vmn has—

i gr^r f=id 4 ^<T g d^

u i^KKid) (6— ogo) i ^gg^rr

=g gifgr gr 1 1 fggr ^ftrgfr 5 gwg i ggprg

(& — oc^o ) f^ggggTgfg^ggr: 11 Most of the Himalayan rivers

are noticed by Al-BirQni. Vide nfra^ P* 51? noie 3. Though he speaks of
both Vy and Mts, possibly the names were quoted by him from the latter
work with an amount of misunderstanding and confusion.

2. Vy, Bmd— [gfgfir^nr ggggr 3 TpF%^R=g (Vy c— qfo )

fgctRr:!] ?Rr:; Mts— [^firfgsgggqgT (5(7--grc>) srnrT

ggg; l"! Pldfm oi§«| qgr:. Gf. p-67, note. 4; p. 70, note. 9.

3. Vy, Bmd, Mts— Mk-^Tf^ gg^ggl' fg?g:.

Omitted in K.rm. Some 3 VXls versions read the names of the rivers
in the second case-ending. It is well known that the G-ahga is the Ganges

PURANIC LIST OF RIVERS

O ^S> Cv

r^cT^KTi ^ f^qwr ^Pf't.r i

and the Sindhu the Indus. The Sarasvati rises in the Sirmur hills of the
Siwalik range in the Himalayas and emerges into the plains at Ad-Badri in
the Amfoala District, Punjab. It disappears once at Chalaur, but reappears
at Bhavanipur ; then it disappears at Balchappar, but again appears at Bara
Khera ; next it is joined by the Markanda at Urnali near Pehoa and the
united stream, still called Sarasvati, ultimately falls into the Ghaggar which
is believed to have borne the name Sarasvati in ancient limes. In the early
Vedic period, the Sarasvati probably flowed into the Arabian Sea. Later
literature speaks of its disappearance at Vinasana (near modern Sirsa) in
Kuruksetra or Brahmavarta (in the Eastern Punjab) which is described as
the land between the Sarasvati and the Drsadvati. Cf.

I ^ ^ It III.

83. 204-05); I ?f ITfnW

U {Manu, II. 17). Vide infra, p. 50, note 2.

1. Vy, Bmd, Krm, Mts — ff- Vmn —

P'si 4 i I The Satadru is the modem Satlaj. It is the Vedic Sutudri

and the Zaradros or Hesydrus of the Classical writers. The Gandrabhaga
is the modern Ghenab which is the same as Asikni of the Vedic literature
and the Acesines of the Classical authors. Ptolemy calls it Sandabala or
Sandabal. The Nila referred to by Vmn reminds us of the name Nilab
applied by the early Muslim writers to a part of the river Indus (cf. Ray,
DHm, Vol, I, p. 84).

2. Vy a, Mts a — Bmd, Vy ede^ Mts b —

Krm cT^TT; Mts Vy e

Cn' C’w'O Csso

(v.l.) — The Yamuna is the modern Jumna (Yamuna)
joining the Ganges near Allahabad. The Sarayu is the modern Ghagra or
Gogra on which the ancient city of Ayodhya (near Fyzabad) is situated
It rises in the Kumaon hills and is called Sarayu, Ghagra or Deva (after its
junction with the Kalinadi).

3. Vy, Bmd, Krm, Mts a — Mts be — ■

The Iravati or Airavati is the modem Ravi which was
known to the Classical writers as Hydraotes. The Vitasta is the modern
Jhelam, the upper course of which is still known by the old name. It w^as
also known to the Classical writers as the Hydaspes or Bidaspes.

4. Vy a, Bmd — ; Krm, Mts a, Vy

: ; Krm b (v. 1 .) — ' Mis ic— gl""
The Vipasa is the modern Beas, called Vipas in eailier literatuie and
Hyphasis or Bipasis in the works of the Classical writers, Tbe Devika

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

WW ^ 5^ f?R=€tTr gr«rT5 i

i s the modern Deeg, a tributary of the Ravi. Another identification suggested
by some writers is that with the Deva, a name applied to the lower course of
the Sarayu. The Kuhu has been identified with the modern Kabul river,
called Kubha in the Rgveda and Kophen, Kophes or Koa by the Classical
writers.

I . Mk abdy Vy abc, Bmd, Krm, Vmn — ^ ] Vy dt —
j fT 'Rd^ ^cfTFrr ; Mts— ^jftFrar Mk c— =^. The

river Gomati has to be identified with the Rgvedic Gomati which is the modern
Gomal, a western tributary of the Indus, or with the modern Goomti which
joins the Ganges below Varanasi. There is another river of this name in the
Kangra District, Punjab. The Dhutapapa was a tributary of the Ganges in
the Varanasi region. The name has been associated with Ahopap on the
Goomti, 1 8 miles south-west of Sultanpur in U. P.

a. Mk ahe — ^ Vy, Bmd, Krm,
Mts — ^rr^r ; Krm b (v. I,), Vy e (v. 1 .) — ^

=5C The Bahuda has been identified by some with

the Dhavala (modelrn Dhumefa or Bu<Jhi-Rapti), a tributary of the Rapli,
and by others with the Ramganga that joins the Ganges near Kanauj The
nver Drsadvati is usually identified with the Gitang. Citrang or Cautang
which runs parallel to the Sarasvati ; but some writers prefer its identification
with the Rakshi that flows by the south-east of Thaneswar, The view of
certain earlier writers identifying the Drsadvati with the Ghaggar seems
to be unjustifiable.

3. The following two lines are contracted into one in Krm —

(6 [V. 1 .], c [V. 1 .]— Vmn and
Mk arrange the names rather independently.

4. Vy, Bmd — ^ 5; Mts—

Pargiter suggests the emendation — ^ or

The Kauiiki is no doubt the modem Kosi which runs through
Nepal and Tirhut and joins the Ganges below Patna; but originally the river
seems to have passed through North Bengal to join the Brahmaputra. There
is another Kosi (Kausild) which flows by Almora and Ramnagar in North
Western U. P. Trityd may be a mistake for Karatoya the celebrated river
of North Bengal. jN'ticird seems also to be a mistake for ITrh'rotaSs the Sankrit
name of the Teesta in North Bengal. Agn (Gh. ri6. 7) seems to locate the
rivers T{*txya and Niscira in the Gaya region ; but the evidence is doubtful,
and, moreover, in that case, they cannot be associated with the Himalayas
Gf. fn/riz, note 5,

5. Mk, Vy.Bmd— ?r«rr; Mts—

PURANIO LIST OF RIVERS

; Vmn — ^1 f^^l. For J^i'ikird, see remarks above, p. 50,

not^ 4. The Candaki (modern Gandak) is the famous tributary of the
Gan^s^es and joins the river near Sonepur (Hai*iharaksetra) in the Mu^affarpur
District, Bihar.

Tksu may indicate the Iksumati (modern Kalmadi, a tributary of the
Ganges) ; but the form Cankn as well as Rafik^u (or Vankpi) in Mk probably
suggests that it is no other than the Vaksu or Oxus (Amu Darya) ; cf.
Kalidasa’s Ra^^huvams^, IV. Gy, in V'allabha’s commentary. The Lohitya
or Lauhi+ya is the same as the Brahmaputra.

2. Mk, V>% Bmd, Krm, Vmn— ; Mts—

"" (v. jtt:

3, The following rivers are mentioned by Al-Baum (Sachau ^Alh

Ind, If I, Gh. 25) as issuing from the Himavat : i. Sindh (Sindhu or Indus)
or the river of Vaihand (ancient Udabhanda or Udahanda, modern Und
near Attock), 2. Biyatta (Vitasta) or Jailam (Jhelam), 3. Candrabhaga
or Candraha, 4. Biyaha (Vipasa) to the west (sic — east) of Lahore, 5.
Iravati to the east (sic — west) of Lahore, 6. ^atarudra or Sataldar (Satadru
or Satlaj), 7. Sarsat (Sarasvati) flowing to the country of Sarsat (Saras-
vata), 8. Jaun (Yamuna), 9. Gahga, 10. Sarayh or Sarwa, ii. Devika,
12. Kuhu, 13. Gomati, 14. Dhutapapa, 15. Visala (cf. Mts bc^ supra,
p. 49, note 4), 16. Bahudasa (sic — Bahuda, with sa prefixed to the next

name in the text consulted ; cf, supra, p. 50, note 2), 17. Kausiki, 18.

Niscira, 19. Gandaki, 20. Lohita, 21. Drsadvati, Other names of this
list appear to have been wrongly taken mostly from that of the rivers issuing
from the Pariyatra (vide pp. 52-54). They are : 22- Tamra Aruna
(Tamravarna ?), 23 Parnasa, 24. Vedasmrti, 25. Vedasini or

Vidasini (cf, infra, p. 52, note i), 26. Candana, 27, Kaw^ana (same
as Kawini, tributary of the Sarwa ^), 28. Para, 29. Carmanvati, 30.

Vidisa, 31. Venumati, 32. §ipra that rises in the Pariyatra and passes
by Ujain (Ujjayim), 33. Karatoya, 34, Shmahina (cf, infra, p- 53, note
2). ALBirum further says (op cit ,pp. 259 ff.), *Tn the mountains border-
ing on the kingdom of Kayabish (Kapisa), i.e. Kabul, rises a river which
is called the Ghorvand on account of its many branches. It is joined by several
affluents : i. the river of the pass ofGhuzak; 2. the river of the gorge
of Panchir (Panjshir falling into the Ghorvand), below the towm of Parvan
(about 8 miles to the north of Gharikar) ; 3-4- the river Sharvat and the
river Sava, which latter flows through the town of Lambaga (Lampaka),
i.e. Lamghan ; they join the Ghorvand at the fortress of Druta ; 5-6. the
rivers Nur and Kirat. — Swelled by these affluents, the Ghorvand (Kabul)
is a great river opposite the town of Purshavar (modern Pesha^war) being

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAE INDIA

Pdriydlra

there called the ford^ from a ford near the village of Mahanara on the
eastern bank of the river^ and it falls into the river Sindh (Indus) near the
castle of Bitur, below the capital of al-Kandabar (Gandhara), i.e. Vaihand
(Und near Attock) . — The river Biyatta (Vitasta), known as Jailam (Jhelam)^
from the city of this name on its A-estern bank, and the river Candaraha
(Gandrahaga) join each other nearly fifty miles above Jahravar (which
together with Multan comprised the ancient Sauvira country; ^ cf. loc. cit,^
pp. 300, 302)5 and pass along west of Multan (which was originally known
as Kasyapapura, next as Hamsapura, then as Vegapura, afterwards as
Sambapura and ultimately as Mulasthana ; cf. the views of Utpala ; loc
cit.y p. 298). — The river Biyah (Vipasa) flows east of Multan, and joins
afterwards the Biyatta (Vitasta) and Candaraha (Gandrabhaga).— The
river Irava (Iravatl) is joined by the river Kaj which rises in Nagarkot in the
mountains of BhatuL Thereupon follows as the flfth5 the river Sataladar
(Satadru ; . — ^After these five rivers have united below Multan at a place called
Paficanada^ i.e. the meeting place of the five rivers, they form an enormous

watercourse The Muslims call the river, after it has passed the Sindhi

city Aror, as a united stream, the river of Mthr an. Thus it extends enclos-
ing in its course places like islands until it reaches al-Mansura, situated between
several of its arms, and flows into the ocean at two places, near the city of
I-KDharani, and more eastward in the province of Kacch at a place called
Sindhusdjsara^ i.e. the Sindh Sea. — ^As the name union of five rivers (Pancanada)
occurs in this part of the world (the Punjab), we obsex've that a similar name
is used also to the north of the above-mentioned mountain chains (i e. the
mountain bordering on the kingdom of ELayabish), for the rivers which flow
thence towards the north after having united near Tirmidh and having formed
the river of Balkh, are called the union of seven rivers (cf. hapta-hindu of the
ancient Iranians), The Zoroastrians of Sogdiana (Bukhara region) have
coafouaded these two things; for they say that the whole of the seven rivers

is Sindh^ and its upper course Bari dish The river Sarsati (Prabhasa-

Sarasvati, mod. Raunakshi) falls into the sea at the distance of a bow-shot
east of Somaath, — The river Jaun (Yamuna) joins the Ganges below Kanoj,
which lies west of it. The united stream falls into the great ocean near
Gangasagara. — -Between the mouths of the rivers Sarsati and Ganges is the
mouth of the river Narmada which descends from the eastern mountains,
takes its course in a south-western direction and falls into the sea near the
town of Bahroj (Broach) nearly sixty yojana east of Somnath. — Behind the
Ganges flow the rivers Rahab (modern Ramganga) and Kavini which
join the river Sarva near the city of Bari (to the east of the Ganges at a
distance of three to four days’ march from Kanoj; cf. p, 199).”

I, Mk, Vy, Bmd, Krm— J Krm b (v. L), c (v. 1 .) —

Mts— The Vedasmyti has been identified

with the modern, Besula in ^alwa. For the Vetravati, vide infra, p. 53,
note 5*

a. Mk, Vy aede, Bmd, Mts, Vma — ^ J Krm—

PURANIG LIST OF RIVERS

'TUff^'c w ^^Fftrr ?rqT2 ii

®qTTr =^w?fr r^f<5ii twsrfq-s 1

Vy b recognises Vrtraghni (cf. Vartaghni in Km.;
modern Vatrak, a tributary of the Sabarmati in Gujarat) only. The Sindhu
is no doubt the modern Kalisindh, a tributary of the Jumna between the
Chambal and the Betwa.

1. Mk- ^zJc— %xrqTW ; Vy a,

Krm ab (v. 1.) c (v. 1.) — tpuf^n" Bmd, Vy cde, Krm be —

Wrar Mts— qvii^ =^; Vmn a rpT f ^j;|f

b — I ’TP^’T! Vy b — rlVt^yfl" Krm b (v. 1.) e(v. 1.) —

4«imi l ■^g'j 6 (v. I.) — qu|Rn ^F^FTT The Parnasa is no other than

the modern Banas^ a tributary of the Chambal, in Rajasthan. Candand is
believed to have been another name of the Sabarmati.

2 . Mk, Bmd, Vy d (v. I-)— Vy acde—

tifrfV 5m, ^—isr^FTHT ^ 1 ^ 5 m (sic), c (v. 1.)— 5RT cfkT cm ;

Krm ai(v.i.)-5raFfhT TTriTiTT, *«— ^=ii^4irerq'cfr Mts—

^gjT; Vmn — qj^rfl' The Mahi is no doubt the river

of that name rising in Malwa and draining itself into the Gulf of Cambay*
The Sadanlra cannot be satisfactorily identified.

3 . The following two lines have been contracted into one in Krm IfC —

1 %felT Trfw^T^m-: ^WT:, b (v. i.)-=^4mft 5m ^

fwferr

4 - Mk ac-crni =^>1^ 5rnft, w— «TRJ Bmd, Vy

ac*— cnrr =^ 1 ^ vy 6 — qrr cm (?), « (v.i.)—

TTr =^4'!^ =4^; Krm— mmft 5m *(v. i.)—

5rsn' Mts— tnrr ^ srmft w, « (v.i .)— trt mfmff The

Para may be the same as the Parvati which rises in Bhopal and is a tributary
of the Chambal, while Garmanvati is no other than the Chambal itself. The
Chambal is a well-known tributary of the Jumna. The reading of the third
name and its identification are uncertain.

5 . Mk, Vy aede, Bmd, Krm— Mts—

; Vmn — %tTTr 5 qfq- • Vy b recognises Vidi^a only. The

-o' ‘O''

river Vidisa is the modern Bes or Besali which falls into the Betwa near
Besnagar (ancient Vidxsanagari)* The Vetravati is the modern Betwa which
is a tributary of the Jumna.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

iftrar ^2

: ^Frar:® II

III

Rkfa

=#^5 f^ye ,

I. This line is omitted in Krm a and Vy b,

s. Mk a6c— f^TETT ^ Vy acde, Bmd— f^TSTT

^;Vy « (v. 10 , Mk d— % 5 rT ^SfT; Mts—

^ J Vmn — f^^l' The Sipra is mentioned in literature

as the river on which the celebrated city of Ujjayini (modern Ujjain in
Madhya Pradesh) was situated. The river Avanti rises near Mhow and
flows into the Ghambal. The Kunli, otherwise called A^vanadi or Asvaratha-
nadi, is a small tributary of the Ghambal (see Dey^ Geog. s. v.

KunflShoja ) .

3. Mk abc, Bmd— ; Vy, Mk q-ftqTWT^raT:
i^prr:; Mts — M iRill-MTfsRrr: Vmn — qTp<^l’fl'-:^«!l:

Pariyatra or Paripatra ^vas the name applied to the Western Vindhyas to-
gether with the Aravalli range,

4- This line is omitted in Mts ab. For the first three lines, Krm reads
rather freely ^WTT ^ I

^ fenr^^bl 11

5. Vy, Bmd, Mtsc -^flFTt ; Vmn— 'q^R^V

The Sona is the celebrated Sone which rises in the Amarkantak range and
drains itself into the Ganges not far from Patna. The ancient city of Patali-
putra stood at the junction of the Sona and the Gahga. The Mahanadi also
rises from the same range and flows through Orissa into the Bay of Bengal.

6. Mk— Vy ?TTT, i— rPTSTT

5m ( sic— fw), c(v. 1.) « (v. 1.)—

Bmd— Vmn— Mts c— yiTSrqT
spit; cf. in Grd, I, 55. 8. The Narmada is the famous

Narbada (Nerbudda) which rises in the Amarkantak range and falls into
the Arabian Sea at Broach. The reading of the other names and their
identification are uncertain.

PURANIG LIST OP RIVERS

f%^wT fw^rr ii

I. Mk, Vv, Bmd, Mts, Vmn — ■Hr^Tf^VlY ^^rn’TT The ^Mandakini
(now called Mandakin) flows into the Paisuni near the Cilrakuta hill^ while
the Dasarna is the modern Dhasan flowing past Sagar betueeen the Betwa
and the ICen.

2. Mk — d^ lH<l ; Vy,Bxnd, Mts—

C\ Cs

Vmn — The Gitrakuta is the same as the Mandakin
or, more probably, a part of it.

3. This line is omitted in Krm. A little freedom is noticed in some
texts as regards the order of the names in the following tv\c lines. Mk has —

f^^frcR^T ^Wr l ^TSTF^TT fq^1%5?^lRrff^Ml^l

(d — ^fqTXf^o) II Mts has— grrar 5 ?^ ^T^Tr

^ I fqwr ^ ^ ii Vmn has —

^ cTwr qTwraa'(i-o^ftqT) fqqnfqqq i gr^rFqT fqcq^^’ift

fqqrar II

4. Vy aaTfjBind— fq»^q*I Mts— ^TTRIT fqcqefl'

Vy be — fq^q^TT The Tamaca is the modern Tons flowing

into the Ganges below Allahabad. The Pippalasroni may be the modern
Paisuni or Parsaroni which is a tributary of the Jumna running betw^een
the Ken and the Tons.

5. Mk— fq^TTfqqq; Vy aede, Bmd, Vmn — q,'<^iflqT
fq-^rrfqqq; vy 6— fq^rrfqqq (sic— fwif^q). Pargiter suggests

the identification of the Karamoda with the modern Karamnasa flowing
into the Ganges above the Sone. The Pisaeika cannot be identified.

6. Vy aede, Bmd— f^Ml^l =q; Krm— fWlW
w, b (v. 1 .) c (v. I.)— r^MldM’^i fqqwT q; vy i— fqqq^

( sic — fqqtqqerr) q^T%qr, (v- i-) — P^cTldM^f fqqrw The

Citrotpala is a branch of the Mahanadi in Orissa or the MahanadI itself
below its junction vrith the Pyri. The other river cannot be identified.

7. 'Vy aede jr| 4 -q?j*)l be (v. 1.) «1 l'^'=llf^’Ti J

Bmd — qi^|qrf|qt ; Krm — +io-4<?i| b (v. 1 .) c (v. 1.) —

56 GEOGEIAPHY of ancient and medieval INDIA

^^3317 ?5TfeF!7fV2 \

■>o O o

1 . The folio-wing line is omitted in Krm.

2 . Mk— ^^317 Vy acde, Bmd— ftf^TjSTT sdPwHdl

Vy b has Suktimati only, c (v. 1.) — 1%l%733fT ^HixI'HgV J Mts a —

25r?ft ?53^T, be — ^fWFcft '^5vr|r; Vmn— ^Tf^RTR^.

The iSuktimati is the modern Ken, a tributary of the Jumna, flowing
through Bundelkhand. On its bank stood a city of the same name (Pali
Sotthwati) which was the ancient capital of the Cedi people. The reading
of the other name and its identification are uncertain.

3- Mk ab f^TfeTT c— d—

Vy ac<ie— Tr^irrr (^(<<=11 ^51Tr?r, c (v. l.)

WRT, « (v.l.) Bmd— TTSHI17

~ ^< 7 ia; ; Mts a4— Vmn—

; Vy b — ^i^rr f^rf^^nr ^pirra;. The Sakun
(Sakruii ?) may be the Sakri which flows into the Seonath, a tributary of
the Mahanadi. The reading of the other names and their identification are
uncertain.

4 - Mk ac (v.l.) i— -^dTr Vy,

; , Krm— pf|:^T^qT^T ; Mts

sr^r^rr:, 3 — ^r: ; Vmn— For the
flksavat, see below, note 6 .

5 . Mk— g-snF^r Vy, Bmd— qifr Pf : ; Krm—

^T#TNf7T ^B^TFr ; Mts— ^nTT: ; Vmn a— cT^TFErT
6 _r^Fiir (T5 ^o ? ) .

6. It is to be noted that the short list in Section IX below (pp. 63-64)
wrongly speaks of some of these rivers as flowing not from the Rksavat but
from the Vindhya. The name l^savat was applied to a particular section
of the range that was in a general sense called the Vindhya. While the name
Vindhya was loosely applied to the whole chain of hills running from
Gujarat (cf, the title ‘lord of the Vindhya’ claimed by the medieval rulers
of Rajpipla in the Broach District in Ep. Ind.^ Vol. XXXIV, p. 140) to
the Gaya region (cf. the Nagarjuni hill mentioned as Vindhya in C//, VoL
III, p. 227) and lying on both sides of the Narmada, that of the Rksavat,
when especially mentioned in literature, is always associated with the central

f^tJRANlC LIST OP RIVERS

Vindhya

i^rnft HF-Efl'scin %5rT ^ j

part of the Narmada valley, of which Maliismati (Mandhata in the Nimar
District of Madhya Pradesh, Mahesvar m the former Indore State according
to some) was the most important city and Dasarna (see p. 55, note i) a
notable river. The Vindhya, when distinguished from the Rksavat, denotes
the chain lying to the south of the Narmada as suggested by Nilakantha who
explains the passage Vindhy-Arksavanidv=abhitah (i-e., ‘lying between the
Vindhya and the Rksavat*) in the Hv^ II. 38. 7 (in respect of the location
of Mahismati and Punka which were on the Rksavat and also between the
two Vindhyas, i.e. the Vindhya and the ]?.ksa) as Vmdhyasjy^otiaraia
vato daksinata ity^arihah (i.e., ‘lying to the north of the Vindhya and to the
south of the Rksavat’)- Gf. Raychaudhuri, Stvd, Tnd. Ani.^ p. 128. The
Ramdyana (VI. 27. 9 — J^savantam girt-sresthcm^cdljidsie Jsiamcdcm ptban) asso-
ciates the !Rksavat with the banks of the Narmada, while the Aiahabhdrata
(III. 61 .22 — et^ gacchanti panthdno bahaio Dakpjjdpathcm * Aiant.m samatikrcnya
Rk§avantam ca parvatam) locates the Rksa to the south of West Malw^a. The
Skanda Pvrdrm (Reva, V.51) refers to the Rksa as the scuice of the Naimada
and seems to include the Amarkantak and Maikal in the said range.
The Puranic texts quoted above (cf. pp. 54 ff.) would also suggest that the
l^ksavat was that part of the Vindhyan range w^hich lies to the north of the
Narmada and runs from the Malwa region right up to the sources of that
river as well ar of the Mahan adl.

1. In some texts slight independence is noticed in the order of the
names contained in this line. Mk has — 511

^rrft [d~^ ; vmn has— f^rwr ’rqiMt

fqf%rsirT 5nrffrtisiT^<jV.

2. Vy abde (v. 1 .), Bmd, Krm, Mts— qzfttoft

Vy ^TFfr 'TJftWY The Tapi, otherwise called Tapti, is

the celebrated river that rises near Multai m the Betul District, Madhya
Pradesh, and flows into the Gulf of Cambay (Arabian Sea) near Surat.
The Payosni has been identified by some scholars with the Pain or Pain-
ganga which is a tributary of the Godavari. Gf. also the name of the modern
Paisani, the small ’tributary of the Jumna in Bundelkhand. The Nirvindhya
is the modern Newuj, a tributary of the Chambal flowing between the Beiwa
and the Kalisindh.

3. Wyacde, Bmd — ^ ftTWT Vy (sic— fen)

?T€t; Krm— ^Fr^*fer w Mts fenr

be — fesrr ^ has :Siprd {d — K^iprd) and Vmn ^ivd

for Madrd (Bmd. and Vy with the exception of b), SighrodM (Rrm) and
Ksipfd or K^iprd (Mts) . The Sipra passed by the ancient city of Ujjayim.
The reading of the other name and its identification are uncertain.

GEOGRAPHY OF AKOIEIJT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

%Ocrr II

^ Trfnfr6'3 ^ I

r^ T t^c r reM^dl-kll ^ 5T?r: sronHRjT: 1 1’

I, Mk ac, Vy abce (v. L), Bmd, Krm a — %ii^r Vy

*— %rqT Krm Sr— f^WT ^(v. 1 -), r (v. 1 .)—

^cRofr #dT>ifl' =#^; Mts, Vmn s— =#^;

Vnan a— qiin- (sic — ^nyy) =#^; Mk bd— %aJrT =#^.

The Venva may be the Wainganga, a tributary of the Godavari. Pargiter
thinks that Venva is the Waingahga together with the Pianhita called
Pranita in the Manthani inscription of 1199 A.D. (Ep- Ind.^ Vol. XXXIV,
p. 67). The Vaitarani seems to be the celebrated ri\er of that name flowing
through Orissa into the Bay of Bengal.

2- Mk ahc — d — Vy acde^ Bmd —

Krm— 2 IV 1 I+I W Mts—

Vmn— ferftd If: ; Vy S— fWgd'Y, c (v. 1 .)—

f^l The identification of the Kumudvati and the reading

of the other name are uncertain.

3. Mk— ^iTicfrirr ^fi^ntt; Vva— Vyc*,

Bmd, Krm <z, Mts- cflw ^I^hAO; Vy 4 — cft^ ^JTT) ^

Krm Sr— TTfRAfT; Vmn— dldT cf

gntTPr in Mbh, VI. 9.33. The BrahmanT

seems to be the same as the Brahmani river flowing through Orissa. The
other river cannot be identified.

4. Mk aSc— 'TRr:%?:r d— gr^rr; vv,

Bmd, Krm— ^irf gRTT; Mts — g'^Wl ^ gT^T; Vmn —

^ ftrgsT gr^r*’ i cf. in Mth, vi. 9. 30. it Js to

be noted that Mbh mentions Durga once in relation to Mahagauri (cf. note
3 above) and again in connection with Gitrasila (sic — r—Antaksild) pro-

bably due to confusion- The rivers cannot be identified. The Citrasila was
in upper Assam according to the Paschimbhag plate of Sricandra.

Mk, Krm Mts — i "kt I * J Vy, Bmd, Vmn —

; Krm be — For the Vindhya, cf. note
3 above and p. 36, note 6.

6. Mk, Vy, Bmd, Vmn— 5 =!^: * Krm— qT^TT

doTTir, s (V. 1 .) r (v. 1.)— 5 ^:; Mts— ??ftgfwr:

c (v. 1.)—^: ^ngrsfgjT: ^hpit:.

7. Note that the short list in Section IX below (pp* 63-64)

PXJEANIC LIST OF RIVERS

Sahya

frc<3Tr I

5^-^sr gwfm® wrpr 5^ n

wrongly speaks of some of these rivers as flo-wing from the Rksavat and not
from the Vindhya. Vide p. 56 . note 6 above.

X. Mk ^ft^rr; Vy, Bmd, Mts, Vmn, Mk d, Krm c—

Krm ifkT^ ^TirsfY. The Godavari,

Still known by its ancient name, rises in the Western Ghats and flow’s through
the Deccan into the Bay of Bengal. The Bhimarathi or Bhimaratha is the
modern Bhima which is a tributary of the Krsna

2 . Mk ac— ^rqr TTT, ^curr cpsrr qrr; Vyacde,

Bmd — ^UIT ■ Krm a— ^isnrr ^ f cun

^wrr, 5 (v. 1 .) — Trart; Mts— ^cur^ufi ^

Vmn -2— ICTSUI^UAII b—W^ Vy b—

^bujX The Krsna is still known by its ancient name and

flows from the Western Ghats through the Deccan into the Bay orBengaL
The Venva is the modern Varna (running between the Satara and Kolhapur
Districts) which is a tributary of the Krs^ia, the combined stream of the tw’o
rivers being often mentioned as Krsnavena or Krsnaveni. The Vahjula
is no other than the modern Mahjira which is a southern tributary of the
Godavari.

3 . Mk, Vy, Bmd, Mts— Vmn— ^Snfl^.
The Tuhgabhadra is a w’cll-known tributary of the Kisna, while the
Suprayega is a small river of the Nellore-Guntur region.

4 . ^f>T%4^TrWr; Vy aede, Bmd— ^1%<T ^

Krm— =5r Virm— ^TITT

Vy 6 — ( sic_^Tin’) 1* The Kaveri is

the celebrated holy river of the southernmost pait of India. It i'? mentioned
by the Greek geographer Ptolemy as Khaberos rising from the Adeisathron
mountain range. The other river cannot be identified.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Malaya

l?OTr^T yi’HMuifs
®?T553TTfWRrr JT?r:« 5

r: II

1. Mk aSc— f^ 7 sir( sic — ^r5ro)triBr1%fT'sqFRrT, d (v. i.)—

l<<PlPl'^^l'^l J Vy, Bmd, Mts a, Krm — ; Mts be —

5 [%oiTwraRgT:; vmn-iT^nwf'r 6— ^c(

^iHc^lWr I TT^Frar. Sahya is the name applied

to that part of the Western Ghats which lies to the north of the Travancore
hills. For the spurious addition of a line in Vmn b, cf. jf JR A SB , Letters,
Vol. XI V, p. 44, note 3; p. 45, note 5, etc.

2. ^i'Rf fWi: ; Vy, Bmd, Mts, Krm be —

^JT; Krm a— Vmn— iSr^nTRf^^niT^:.

3. Mk, Vya, Krm , Mts, Vmn. — d 1 H “IT j Krm be —

^I 5 rquff; Baxd> Vy bade (v. 1 .) ^cFlT? 5 T m'W^;

Vy e — |RcnTF 5 T cITST^^'Tf. The Krtamala is no other than the
modern Vaigai running past Madurai (cf. Caitanyacaritdmrta^ Ch- IX)-
The Tanxrapami is now known as Tambravari which combines its stream
with the Ghittar in the Tirunelveli District of Madras.

4. Mk— J^iSLjN^u ; Vy, Bmd, Krm \ \ ;

Mts — i Vmn J Krm b —

c — ^ I ^ . These rivers cannot be identified.

5. The following line is omitted in Vmn together with the two lines
in Section VII following. Thus the Vmn text would make the rivers
mentioned in Section VI flow from the Suktimat mountain (cf. Section
VIII below) apparently through mistake.

6. Mk — I Vy-^‘4.^"^ij Bmd —

IdT J Krm — 4 |>:»q | J Mts a — ;

be — Malaya (derived from the Dravidian word
malai meaning ‘hill*) was the name applied to the Travancore hills and the
southernmost part of the Western Ghats.

7. Mk— Tfg: idt^r 5 F 5 Tfe 3 FIT: ; Vy, Bmd, Mts— ;
Krm--^: sd^cTSF^T:

PURANIG LIST OF RIVERS

VII

Mahendra

1. The following two lines, as already indicated above (p- 6o, note 5),

are omitted in Vmn, and are represented in K.rm by one line reading i

^ I without any reference to the range from which

the rivers spring. Thus the Krm text would wrongly represent the rivers
mentioned in Section VII as issuing from the Suktimat (see Section VIII).

2. Yyacd-^^mm b—

%’m^r f^RTTmT Bmd- fwPRT

Krm~-^fq|g-<? 3 Tr Mts--fw 7 Tr -^fq^wr The ?.§ikulya,

still bearing its ancient name, flows into the Bay of Bengal near Berhampur
on the South-Eastern Railway in the Ganjam District of Orissa. The other
river cannot be satisfactorily identified.

3 . Mk- f^f^r ^ ^ir; Vy acde, Bmd-

^ m ; Mts-^^ ; Vyi— ^^ 55 T pTf^^W^Tr. Gf.

in ikfiA, VI.9.17.

•o *\

4. Mts reads for this line rather freely — jffi'-gl'quff d'*^ l'

(c — 1 ^rl^^cTfrar: siwrar: 11

It may be noted that subha-gdminih does not suit the context. Cf. Pargiter,
op. cit., pp. 78 ff.

5. Mk ac— Qyr|ffe?fr W— ^w?T; W

abd, Bmd — Vy The

■o' C\

Lahgulinl is the modern Languliya running past Srikaku lam in the District
of that name in Andhra Pradesh. The Vaihsadhara (®dhara), which is still
known by the old name, runs past Kalingapatam near Srikakulam.

6. Mk— jH^v gsrW: Vy, Bmd— i^iprr:.

Mahendra was the name applied to the Eastern Ghats, A small river
passing by Parlakimedi is called Mahendratanaya, though the said expres-
sion in our text really describes the rivers as sprung from the Mahendra,

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

VIII

Suktimat

^qj 'T^srf^pft' ^fqcriTcrsr'JT^: i i

Ok o "N C.

I, Vmn contracts the two following lines into one —
^f^q 55 r'»{'TlT? 5 ^'H'r: {b ^rf^'qd^o ) while Krm reads rather freely —

f^Tsrr (6 [v.L] — ^^arr) q^nt^^fr (s[v. i.],c

[V. 1.]— q::e^rfc7ift^ i sffq^rq^qr^'^i^'raT: ^rtqiqirr ^'nrq; ii

2. Mk — SttPq ^C'MT ^'qT<t Vy acde — ^'Tl'qiT =^, b —

Bmd — -sfi (^'hT I -CT ^ J — <=MRi'ri| =^.

Of. Mbli, VI. 9. 365 and note tf at in this case

at least Mk seems to preserve the original reading (cf p. 64, note 8 below).
Raychaudhuri’s identification ofKumaii with the river of the same name
in the former Manbhum District in South Bihar seems to be quite picbable m
view of the plausibility of his identification of the kvla-paryata called Suktimat
with the hills of Eastern India extending fiom Chhatisgai'h to the Santal
Parganas (see note 5 below). The Rsikulya may be no other than
the KLoel in Ghhota Nagpur. Another Rsikulya is no doubt the Kiul,
a tributary of the Ganges.

3, Mk, acde ^ Bmd, Mts Tfr^fTfr k| rq'^l f^rf)* * Vy b —

cf. Krm — and Mbh, VI. 9. 33 — Tpgprft
The rivers cannot be identified.

4. 'Mkabc^'Vve (v. 1 .) — fTTF 'T^rf^l^fT ; Mk c (v. 1.)— wr

q'^yrfwr d q^Tfwr =#q'; Vyard«— ^qr =qq-

6— fqrqf (sic— ^trr) Bmd— ^qr q^flrift =#q-;

Krm— %qT qwfMt Mts— ^qr =qr qT%?fV R aych au dhur i

identifies the Kupa with the medem Kopa, a tributary of the Babla in
Eastern India, and the Palasini with the modem Paras, a tributary of the
Koel in Ghota Nagpur. The other river cannot be identified.

5 . Mk ahe, Vy, Bmd — ; Mk

: y Mts i r+i M 1 to, The name of the iSuktima is

preserved in that of the Sakti hills in Raigarh, Madhya Pradesh, and possibly
in that of the Suktel liver which Joins the Ivlahanadi near Sonepur in Orissa,
The name Suktimat was probably applied to the chain of hills that
extends from Sakti in Raigarh, M. P. , to the Dalma hills in the old Manbhum
District drained by the Kurnarl and perhaps even to the hills in the Santal
Parganas washed by the affluents of the Babla (Raychaudhuri, op, cit,

p. I20),

PURANIO LIST OF RIVERS

Condensed List

Vsn, II, Ch. 3, w. 9-13 ; Bmh, Ch. 19, w.
Dharmasamhita, Ch. 34, vv. 9-12 ; Agn, Gh.

10-14 ; cf. Sv,
118, vv. 6-8.

q-rF<44r=^1:^5)i ^5 ,,

fr?fr i

»o

I* This line is omitted in Sv and Agn. See Vsn Dhm, I- 10. 3-9,
Vsn, Bmh — (see p. 49, note i above) -

3. Vsn— l^rrWcqT^f^T’T^: ; Bmh — f^-H (see p. 51,

note 2 above).

4. Vsn — ; Bmh — ; Sv, Agn —

TT?r: (see p. 52, note i above).

5. Vsn— q-rf^qr^t^:^ Bmh, Sv— qrfWT^^^; Agn—

qrfw^tii^T^sn’ (see p. 54, note 3 above).

6. For the following line, Sv has — d - 4 <1

1 ^T^qrq^-^j: II Agn has— f%rsirrs=5r

TBv. ■fTfH'a; (sic — crrfr q^Trf^:'jm.

7. Vsn — Bmh — fnf^reptTTTUT^ (see p. 54,

note 6 above).

8. Vsn— f^^q-rfS'fJT'irdT: ; Bmh—

Note that the source of the Narmada group of rivers is actually the Rksavat
and not the Vindhya ; vide p. 56, note 6 above.

9. For the following line, Bmh has — d I-

I ^r: qrr ^rr; 11

the wrong mbhakti in nadih^ see p. 61, note 4 above. Note that the Tapi
and Kaveri are wrongly grouped together as riven issuing from the
l^ksavat (see p. 57, note 2; p. 58, note 5; p, 60, note 2 above). This line
is omitted in Sv.

10. Vsn — cTr'frT^^^^Ttf d Note that
these rivers actually flow from the Vindhya and not from the Rksavat.
See p. 56, note 6; p. 58, note 5 above.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

qrq^flRm^. ii

^ 1 %cFIWT^^>T^:® 11 ^®

I. For the following two lines, Sv has—

i3, Vsn, Bnih-

loRt 1

■^flTTR^

3. Vsn, Bmli— 'TFnPTT’ 7 ^:.

4. Agn has rather freely— Tr^TJTRr Tr|?S'SIT:

2 ?rfefRfr 11

5. Vsn, Bmh—

6. Vsn— fWTRT
Sv— f^nwr

; Bmh — f^^rrreir

f: (see p. 61, note 2 above).

7* Vsn, Bmh, Sv — ^+idT^ (see p. 61, note 6 above) ♦

^ <L

8 . Vsn, Sv- c^tiftl ^^’M'l^HI-qT^ 1 : ; Bmh— ^■rt|f^T^:H r<T^ It

8 . Vsn, Sv— cstiftl^i
(see p. 62, note 2 above).

9. Vsn, Sv, Bmd — ^

(see p. 62, note 5 above).

10. Grd (I, Gh. 56, 8-10) reads rather freely — f^‘H 4 <T

I grft q^fr^ wf^r. TftTRft ^r«rr 11 ^fl< Tq ' 0

TTfFr^ I ^fTTIvil m^OTJff = q ^ 5 -'q ' Hil 1 1 wfk

^ Tixq'>r^-T 1 ?r?r: q rr ^c r: 55 r^: 1 1

Bgvt (V, Ch. 19, Section 17) has in prose— <a T'^ MWT 3 { 2 f?l 5 T

t'dy I v!> I ^'^'=11 qjrfTW’flr

ifTeTR'CV ffr1%sqT WTsrift ^:qT ^<-^'1' 3 F^:

^qtScfV iftwir ^srtPiT ^ms-

PtTRANIG LIST OF RIVERS

Ganga

Bmd, Ch. 51, w. 40-60; Mts, Gh. 121, w. 39-51 ; Vy,
Ch. 47, w. 38-48; cf. Sachau, Alb, Ind., I, pp. 24-62*

Seven Streams

^ qwsft ^ 5rRKrT:4 ii
^ftcTT f^^nrrfsFTT:® i

o o

^iTT grot ■JTifrwrs n

ii^^srr ■■n^TH'^r: ii cf. Km. (pp.

93-94)* (a) 4 1 “h <d' 14 1 4> I

(b ) ^^orFr«r — i f '^4'i-

^r5=^^5^-5TsigT'5rTaj(gi'<?ir4gl <r4ui'ii i frar: i (c) —

rRT: I (d)

<i -=)'<f) r^g'^'rfsrri gw: i The

Kapisa is the modem Kasai running through the Mi dnapur District,, West
Bengal. l§vabhravati=mod, iSabarmati. For longer lists of rivers, see
Mbh, VI, Gh. 9 , 14 - 36 ; Vardha Purdna, Gh. 85 , etc. Kasai is pronounced by
some as Kdnsdt.

1. Vy adc, Bmd- 7?^; *1^9 ^JT:, c-^FTaTT: «flg^ Tr^nRIT:;

Mts — ^ffgrfe 1 4 1'^* Note that Al-Biruni utilised, in regard to this

Section j the text of Mts; therefore here we shall have to speak of Mts d
instead of Vy b. Thus Vy, when unspecified, 'would indicate here all the
versions excepting Vy

2 . Vy, Bmd— Mts—

3 . Vy, Bmd, Mts d — Mtsa^^ — ‘^TfefV

4 . Vy a— qrg'jft arwrgr; vy c*— trrg^ wg sTT^rgr. Mts—

qrgifr =#g stfshtt.

5 . Vy, Mts, Bmd — ^ftgr

6. Vy, Bmd— jT^fH^fenrrfWr:; Tvits— # srg^tsggr;.

7 . Vy, Mts— gRpft gret; Bmd— f% ^wrgYgr.

8 . Vy ^rr>flr^; vy «, Mts— ^f^ripr

geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

5r1wT 11

I. Vya— sr^TlT^ ITT ode, Bmd— ffWf ^ffPfKsflr

irr Mts— ?r?TTR ^FfN:^ ^ W- For these seven rivers, cf.

Rarmyana (I. 43 . 11-14 ; 44 6 ): cT^

sr% I rlW f^^^ITTFTTJTt 11 rTT^

^ cm ^ 1 f^: 517=^ fef vsiMTiJi-^-i: Rl'^vii'cii: i

^ iTfFrfi' 1 f2[^ w^: 5r^>5

fef wr: H 55Rwr -=iK^^iiTTmi ' ^'Ytc2r7;0Fcr5T qrsfr

'O "s.

cR=m f^«iTrr 5FRm ii of the seven streams.

there is no difficulty about the identification of the Ganga or Bhagirathi, which
is no other than the Ganges, and of the Sindhu which is the Indus. The
western stream Caksu is also apparently the same as Vaksu or Vaihksu,
i. e. the Oxus or Amu Darya, while the second western river called Sita may
be the Tagdumbash branch of the Yarkand. As the eastern stream Hladini
or Hradini is said to have run through the country of the Kiralas, who were
hill-men inhabiting the eastern Himalayas, this river may be tentatively
identified with the upper Brahmaputra. Indradvipa, through which the
other eastern river called Pavani passed, is identified by some scholars with
Burma. Gf. Subsection G below. See also the note in the same Subsection
on Vetrapatha and Sankupatha (in Suvainabhumi) through which the
Pavani is said to have passed. This river may thus be tentatively identified
with the Irawadi. The thiid eastern stream called Nalini cannot be identi-
fied; but it is said to have entered into the sea in the Saimi mandala which
reminds us of Siam. The name of Siam (Syama-rattha), which is unconnected
with Sanskrit sydma^ is derived from that of a tribe called in Chinese Sien^
Burmese Shan^ Malayan Syamy Annamite Xiem and Cham Sydm, The Nalini
may thus be tentatively identified with the Salween or the Mekong. It
must be remembered that the theory attributing the origin of all the seven
rivers to the same lake in the Himalayas has to be regarded as a meie flight
of fancy. The lists of countries washed by the rivers do not appear to be
always accurate.

2 * Vy, Mts a, Bmd — ; Mts be — srf^HT

3 . Vy, Brnd-^gr^gr Mts— ^

4 . Vy, Bmd-

bc-^' 5

or Bharata var^a (Bmd,I.
the sea.

^ ; Mts a —

. The Hima var^a was otherwise called the Haimavata
33 • 55 » etc.) lying between the Himalayas and

PURANIC LIST OF RIVERS

sr^: ^nrr )i

fTpn^^rpT ■«TTW^3 ^i%=5^5rFrT^ ?iw:« i
®WT=5^f% m: wr i

Slid

ffTR=^«iT 5 T 8 i

^'Tniri^ 3 r^T^;^Tn?^ ^rpr^ ii

1. Vy, Bnad— sr^: ?F^?TSR^:; Mts— 51^: ^TSI^.

2 . Vy, Bmd, Mts

3. Vy a — ^TWl^i-l R '>l l<=l'H»T^l, d— ’TPH^^rpT '*TT^^ ; Bmd, Vy ce~

'irrw^Fcjft ; Mts-^^^mr

4. Vy, Mts, Bmd — J%= 5 ^SrTtrR= 5 r ^' 4 ^: j cf- p- 70 » note g below,
and p. 48, note 2 above.

5 . The following line is omitted in Mts.

6. Vy, Bmd —

7. Vy, Bmd- Jl 4 t ^Tfra':.

8 . Vy- f^rfr^SJFr Mts aic—

ti^STFT ; Bmd— fefWr^ ^^tMYjTFT ; Mts d— ^rf%^ 5 T^ ^n^"-

For the Ginas, see above p. 34, note 6; below, p. 68, note 3.

9 . vy-j^^rq; ; Bmd- ^^w ;

Mts ab— ^ 4 TFr c— ^ 4 t 1 JT JR^rpT mfpf, V. I —

*N 's >. ■s''

^ — ^TPT ^T^RFFT For the Varvarag

and Yavanas, see above, p. 33, note i, p. 34, note 5. The original home of the
Sakas was the valleys of the Jaxartcs and Oxus. The Yavanas or Greeks
ruled once in the Oxus valley.

10 . Vy, Bmd — tS^PTI's^R Mts a5c — gl^'+h-=l

-<^1 ^*«| For the Kunindas, see above, p. 33, note 3, although

the people indicated here must have lived in Central Asia. The Rusanas
were the people of Roshan in the Tajik Republic (U.S S-R.) .

II Vy, Bmd— Mts cic— sr^=7t^;T SfTPR'

TT'^'vi=t><=t . See above, p. 34, note 5.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

fr'TT qf^=q^5ff^2 n

Cak$u

sraj- I

^rr^Ti^'TTTFT W-t-MT^^s qTT^ 51WT® 1 1

iT^rrfr TTcftsTf^nr® ii

Sindhu

-in?!Tra?T sr^^q; f i

1 . Vy — I f^STT ; Bmd — ^c=ll ', Mts abc —

fs^rr f|Tiw, d — fgsrr

2. Vy, Bmd, Mts d qft'-^^snT; Mts afic- 5 rf%FHT

3. Vy, Bmd, Mts ad—^[^ -rfld'-Hl^'^^^ ; Mts be — Sf^T
For the Cina desert, cf. above, p. 34. note 6; p. 67, note 8.

4. Vy ac^ Bmd — ^f^pTTT^ 1 d ,

i (v- 1 .) — dc!^f^«t>ld ; Mts a — chlf^d^i^dd ■dvi'^IH, be

^nf^^rnr^oT d ^f^^rnr* For the Tahganas and

Gulikas, see above, p. 35, notes 4 and 9. But these Tanganas may have
lived near about the Western Himalayas, The correct reading of the last
name may be Culika.

5 . Vy HFSjr^'5rT<iW'(-m<=bl?T, d ;

Mts ahe — g^fclicld ^TI^TTFT, d ^TRFTFT; Bmd —

dTT^TH^^^^TnTd” For the Tusaras or Tukharas and Lampakas,

see above, p. 34, note 6; p. 35, note 3.

6. Vy a — T^'ctld ^T^iFT; Bmd, Vy ede — STFSTTF

gi 5 FT; Mts abc—<r^^[^ rf— ^TWr^==^crFT ( sic— 'TR^-

^ . See above, p. 32, note 9; p. 33, note 4; p. 67, note 9.

7 - Vy, Bmd, Mts— tppf ^STfFRFT^:.

8. Vy ac (v. 1 .) ede (v. 1 .), Bmd—

iRTt^JT ; Mts— Fgrr.

9. Vy, Bmd — •y'fiR-HlX.TF; Vy e(v. 1.) — ^RiTWRnT;
Mts a5c— see above, p- 34 , note 4 ;
P- 35> not«‘ 9-

10. Vy, Bmd— ITFSJRFT '^^PT; Mts n 6 c— TpSTFCr^

PURANIG LIST OF RIVERS

6 ^

fwftTFT ^RTRff^ II

> "N "N

rf^ *^«i^ ® 1 1

O vs *\ 'O

Gaiigd

Tpsr^f^T f+WiM ST^TFT’

rf_Trirsn<Fr ¥<'Hivr ( sic— srlwr^r) see above,

P- 33 > note i ; p- 35, note 6. The Kuhus appear to have been the people
inhabiting the valley of the Kuhu or Klabul liver.

1. Vy, Bmd— ; Mis—

The Sivapauras must have been the inhabitants of Sivapura, i.e. modern
Shorkot in the Jhang District of West Pakistan. The other people cannot
be identified.

2. Vy — f^^THT ; Bmd — WTcft^ ;

Mtsafc— iETR^^sraW, ( sic-^q-^rra^)...The Vasatis

(Ossadioi of the Greeks) appear to have occupied parts of the territory drained
by the lower Ghenab and situated between the confluences of that river res-
pectively with the Ravi and the Indus.

3- Vy, Bmd— ; Vy a (v. L) —

; Mts rf_#fSRFT ( sic—

. , Other names in Alb. Ind. aie Bahimarvara, Mara, Mruna and
Supurda which are apparently due to mistakes in the Arabic manuscripts
of Al-Biruni’s work consulted by Sachau. For the Saindhavas, see above,
P- SSj note 2, and for the variant readings of the othername, p 33, note 5.

4- Vy— -C-ai^FT , e (v. 1 . )— 'Sjq 2 Tvfr^.y^^=h | ; Bmd—
if+ri'i.O+i'tiM ; Mts flic — ^pFRTTFRrPT- Above, p. 32, note 7

would suggest arnftTnr But the Romakas may be the people

of Ruma lying probably near the Salt Range.

5. Vy, Bmd— Mts air—

6. Vy — (v. 1.), Mts abc, Bmd —

•s' 'O

7. Vy, Mts, Bmd — Tfr^cifrf ^T^TT^. Al-Biruni explains

the Gandharvas as musicians. These names originally indicated certain
tribal peoples, although later they came to imply classes of mythical beings-
The Kinnaras and Yaksas were probably names applied to some Himalayan
tribes, while Gandharva appears to have been the original name of the people

later called Gandhara (cf. VII. loi. ii : cT^fftT^PTf ^

I Tpsf^ ^ 11 etc. ) . The names h owever

seem to have been used in the present context in the sense of mythical tribes.

8. Vy, Bmd, Mts — Al-Biruni regards the

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ' AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

^r^rr 1%5WFr wRf u
?rJRFr#T^ i

4 =^l«'t>i[^i-Hc^iR'^'’ +f‘|cJl'^-itG^ II

5 TT 5 rfe^?rfW®T^ ^ I
iPffT -STR^ ^PTT ll“

tJragas as those who creep on tlieii bieasts, i.e. the serpents. These three
naniess like those mentioned above^ p. 69* notes sff., originally indicated
certain non- Aryan tribal peoples but were later used to indicate mythica
tribes. They appear to be used in the present context in the mythical sense.

1. Vy, Bmd, Mts — All-Biruni explains Kalapagram a
as the city of the most virtuous people.

2. Vy, Bmd — hkciH ^ff’FTFT « (v- 1 ) — 'TTi'^iWI-

; Mts az.c— d— ^rsrr wft.

Al-Biruni explains the Khasas as mountaineers. The name Kimpurusa
was originally applied to a Himalayan people but was later used to indicate
a mythical tribe. The Khasas were a Himalayan tribe now represented
by the Khakkas of Kashmir. See above p. 36, note 6.

3. Vy, Bmd, Mts — Al-Birumi explains the
Puliixdas as hunters of the plains or robbers. For the Kiratas, see above
p. 31, note I. The Pulindas were an aboriginal people inhabiting the Vindh-
yan region ; but the name was later applied to Vindhyan mountaineers in
general and still later to any aboriginal people. The meaning oiKirdta^
originally a Himalayan tribe, was also similarly modified. Gf. p. 39, note 5.

4. Vy, Bmd— ; Mts— ^

According to the epic and Puranic traditions, the Kurus and the Bhaxatas
belonged to the same clan. For the Kurus, see above, p. 30, note 2.

5. Vy, Bmd — ; Mts a — l

:*TcWFT, he — 'Rc^ Id, d — I d ®hTd M oW I

See above, p. 30, note 2; p- 3t, notes i and 2. But Matsjya may be a
mistake for Vatsa which was the name of the people inhabiting the
Allahabad region.

6. Vy, Bmd, Mts abc — d". Mts d omits Anga. Sec above,
p. 36, note 5; p. 38, note i.

7- Vy, Bmd, Mts abc — Mts d omits X'^anga. See
above, p. 36, note 5; p. 37, note 5-

8. Vy, Bmd, Mts — d* See above, p. 37, note 8.

9. Vy, Bmd, Mts — ^clld ddMdH BfTdfd. Cf. the reference here to

"N "v

drya with mleccha-prdydmi=^ca sarvaiah at p. 67, note 4 above.

10 Vy, Bmd— TT^ Mts,Vy e (v. !•)— 'STT^Tq^

JPUKANIU LISX’ OJb' RIVERS

^TcT:

Hlddini

^55-|f<ri> jDjrr® i

cfSTT ?fteWFrPT® ll"

^^r<l^td-tpuir^® f^r^TTFTfq’ ff 11^**

ffsRrnr 5r^(i3t)wft^n^^2 |

1. Vy, Bmd, Mts— srfy'^ci'T

2 . Vyp Bmd, Mts — 5rl%^r

3* Vy — ; Bmd — ^n^TT J

J^ts— 2 ^.

4 - Vy ac — STF^^'^TTf^W^ 1^1 ts be, Vy de — ITF^lFnf^T*!^^ 57^^;

Vy c (v. L), Mts a — SrT'^^tTrf^Hl=IT Bmd — wft*

■O NO

5 . Vy, Bmd — I ; Mts abc—^^^

d 1 ^ I d I •

6. Vy, Bmd — Pm l<^ldl'=-^ '^id’M: ; 3VIts abc — Pm I<^m(h

i/— Pi'MRRpr (sic ) ^q?;i:.

7 . Vy, Mts abc — J Bmd — ^=1 <l*icl'tii=^-=j^ ; Mts d —

8 . Vy, Bmd, Mts— ^qT qteWFfft’.

g, Vy, Bmd — ^ <.^ i d tij \ ^ ; Vy e (v. 1.) — <t* ^ j

m 1 :s abc — %^r^T?T c (v- L) d — T

Al-Biruni explains T^strakanm as a people whose lips are turned Hke their
ears possibly through a confusion of the word usira with o^tha.

10. Vy, Bmd,Mts— f^TTcTT^ ^

11. Vy,Bmd — eM<?ri?^<ld fqqu| 1 } Mts abc — d

c (v. 1 .) — ^ \ Ri»rc^^iflf'=h d —

AhBirunI explains Vimrna as the colourless people so called cn account of
their intensely dark complexion.

Vy, Bmd— ^TTRH ; Vy « (v. 1.)-

12 .

GEOGR4.PHV OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

N=> C\ O C\

Favani

fef TRTT* I

^2iT %w^q'«rpTf^T® i

Mts C (v. 1.) d

cpipTfiRiR'- Al-BIruni explains SvargabhUmi as a countiy resembling
paradise. But the reference is to Survarnabhumi. Gf. abovCj p. 66^ note i;
below, notes 7-*8.

1. Vy, Bmd, Mts— ^ TTO^ ^WsTR.

2. Vy, Bmd— f^Rt’TclT^Tg;^^'; ; Mts aic— ^

(v. 1.)

3 - Vy, Bmd, Mts d — Mts oAc— rrf^STff
Note that there is difference between the extant versions of Mts and those
of Vy and Bmd, but that the Mts manuscript consulted by AhBiruni
supports Vy and Bmd. See also above, p. 65, notes 3 and 4; p- 66, note i.

4 * Vy, Bmd— fef "fT^r; Mts— fet

5. Vy (v, DjBmd — ; Vy e —

Mts — AI-Biruni explains Kupatha as a
people who are far from sin. For names ending in patha or marga^ cf.
Siddha patha {Rajaiar., VIII. 557). the old name of the Sidau or Budil
pass (14000 ft ) in Kashmir. See also note 8 below. Cf. p. 35. note 8; p.
45, note 5; p. 74; note 2.

6. Vy, Bmd — Mts —

Al-Biruni explains the passage as ‘the cisterns of king Indradyumna^.

7. Vy, Bmd— ; Mts— g-qi

Kharapatha reminds us of Ajapatha and Verapatha, mentioned in the
Buddhist Niddesa commentary, the latter also by Ptolemy as Berabai which
was not far from Takkola about the present Isthmus of Kra (cf. Majumdar,
Suvatnadviija^ VoL I, pp. 56-60 ; Levi, Etudes Asiatiqucs, Vol. II, pp. 1-55).
See note 8 below.

8. Vy, Bmd — Sahkupatha
is mentioned in the Niddesa commentary (cf. note 7 above) along with
Verapatha, Jannupatha, Ajapatha, Mendhapatha, Ghatrapatha, Vaihsa-

PURANIG LIST OP RIVERS

53 srfq^ «cjql<fciTT 4 II

Nalini

5Tf%5ft qi^ricfs srrOnTMt ge 1

patha, Sakunapatha, Musikapatha and Daripatha. Vetrapatha (possibly
called Vettadhara or Vettacara in the JSftddesa) is mentioned in connection
with Suvamabhumi (the land beyond the eastern sea cr the Bay of Bengal)
in the Brhatkathdslokasamgraha, These extraordinary routes (passes ?) axe
also referred to in other early Indian works such as the Vimdnavatthu, the
Tittira Jdiaka^ the Milindapanha^ Patahiali’s comment on Panini, V. i. 77,
and the Ganapdtha. It has been suggested that the knowledge of the Far East
exhibited by the Ntddem did not exist in India before the first century A*D.,
but that it is earlier than the third century A.D. The Jsfiddem list, with
which the Puranic section under discussion may be contemporaneous, has
been assigned to a date between the end of the first and the beginning of the
third century A,D. Incidentallv it may be pointed out that the knowledge
of the Far East exhibited by the Mahdhha§ya points to a late date of the work
in its present form as suggested in JHQ^^ Vol. XV, pp. 933 fF.

1. Vy (sic),^:* (v. l), Bma —

; Vy «— ; M.is abc —

2. Vy, Bmd, Mts abc — Mts s| I—

q <u| r; qift. See above, p. 45. note 7,

3. Vy, Bmd, Mts a — Mts be — 5 »

6 (v. 1 .) — I^or the identification of Indradvipa with
Burma, see Cunningham, Anc. Geo^. Ind.^ ed, Majumdar Sastri, pp.

751-52; Sircar, Cosm> Geog. E. Ind Lit.^ p. 56.

4. Vy, Bmd, Mts—

5. Vy, Bmd, Mts d— J Mts ahe—
qfjcpFfl’ ^TWI^. Note the difference between the two versions;

cf. above, p. 72, note 3.

6. Vy, Bmd, Mts—:

t ^5r%q' g.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDEVAL INDIA

cftippT ^ f^nrFTffT ^rff^rpT^ II

m f5rd^4 i

3^rH'“^'j4<=t>>s g® srf^CT m II

1. Vy acde (v. I.), Bmd — ^ffRTPT Vy c — cffTRPT

C 5 rr^ 4 'nd 1 ^; Mts abc — W< 4 »-aY d — crWTFr i-(?iT^il«-dY

See above, p. 35, note 8; p, 46, note 2.

2. Vv 'Mgg't'M, c (v- l.)>Bmd — ^Sr^FTFT;

Vy C— ^^nPTFr^r (sic); Mts abc— ^'^-qFrfJT

d — ^^-HhlTd above p. 35, note 8: p. 45, note 5.

3 - Vy, Bmd, Mts abc — Mts d —

4. Vy, Bmd, Mts d— f^fr^ ^ ^fSTT f^Rt^ ; Mts aic—

^IT 1%R*T.

A.l-Blruni explains Kar^tapravarana as a people whose ears used to fall
down on their shoulders. Gf. above, p. 45, note 7.

6. Vy, Bmd— STFq- J Mts— WT

A.l“Birun 5 explains Aivamukha as a people with horse’s face.

7. Vy, Bmd— fy=bdFT 4 g^JT ; Mts a6c— m,

H Rt+c^l M'HCt'Hii AI-Biruni explains parvata-mai u as mountainous

steppes.

8 . Vy, Bmd— R-^IW^I^ ; Mts— ’Tc^T f%m«r<TdR.

9- Vy— 5; Bmd — j Mts ac —
^f+H+|Us<»=bl(s<i j — ^rtfjprftng^ gfliss Ko^the

may be a mistake for kacche. See above, p. 66, note i .

10. Vy, Bmd, Mts d— 5 rf%«S 2 T m Mts abc— ^ STf^IRT

Chapter V

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

There is the manuscript of a small work entitled Satpafi’-
caiadde§avibhdga (G, 9660 ; foil. 1 B-3 B) in the library of the
Asiatic Society, Calcutta. While entering it in the Descriptive
Catalogue of Sanskrit Alanusc^ipts in the Government Collection under
the Care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal^^ Pandit H. P. Sastri
remarked that it may 'be part of some Tantra’; but he did not
try to find out the Tantra to which it belongs. The Saipan-
cd^addeiaznhhdga is, however, actually the seventh Patala of Book
III of the Saktisahgama Tantra, There are four fragmentary
manuscripts rf this Tantra in the Society’s library ; but only
one of them^ contains the section in question. A few years ago.
Book I (Kali-khanda ) of the Saktisangama Tantra^ edited by
B. Bhattacharya, was published in the Gaekwad Oriental Series ;
but the remaining Books remained in manuscripts. Bhattacharya,
then Director of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, kindly sent
me, at my request, a copy of the Saktisangama Tantra^ Book III,
Patala vii- His letter to me dated the 2nd April, 1941, reads,

"This reading is based on four manuscripts We have

in our library only one manuscript of the Saktisangama Tantra i
but the readings found in it contain omissions and errors which
are corrected with the help of other manuscripts. I feel that the
accompanying reading is fuller and free from errors as far as the
manuscript material permits.”® In my edition of the Satpaned-
iaddeiavibhdga published here, I have therefore utilised the
following three manuscripts : —

A — Manuscript of the Satpancdsadde§avibhdga in the library
of the Asiatic Society (No. 9660).

B — Manuscript of the Saktisangama Tantra in the library
of the Asiatic Society (No. 323).

C — Copy of the manuscript of the Saktisangama Tantra^
Book III, Patala vii, kindly supplied by B. Bhattacharya.

I. Vol. IV, 1923, pp. 35 f

2- 323-5524, foil. 209A-2I2A.

3, Volumes II (Tarakhanda) and III (Sundar'khanda) were pub-
lished respectively in 1941 and 1947* For Satpamdsadelavibhdga^ see Vol.
Ill, pp. 66 fF.

GEOGRAPHY OR ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

The Saktlsangama 'Tmitra^ to which the Satpancdsaddesavibhdga
belongs^ is a late work that is roughly assignable to the seven-
teenth century. In his introduction to the Kdlikhanda (Book I
of the ^aktisangama Tantm)^ B. Bhattacharya assigns the work
to the period between 1555 and 1607 A.D. or roughly to circa
1581 A.D.^ This date is, however, based on the supposition
that ‘'in the Tantrasdra by Krsnananda Agamavagisa (wiitten
sometime after 1577 A.D. the Saklisaftgama Taiilra is largely
quoted. a matter of fact, there is not a single quotation
from the Saktisangama in the Tantrasdra, The Satpancasadde^a^
vibhdga (verse 11), on the other hand, refers to the inclusion
of Ujjayim in the country of Maharastra and this seems to point
to the Maratha occupation of Malwa under Baji Rao I (1720-
40 A.D.). Verse 16 again speaks of Karnata in the sense of the
^Carnatic^ and not of the Rannada-speaking country. We know
that the successors of Venkata II (1630-42) of the Aravidu
dynasty of Vijayanagara kings, even though they ruled a small
tract in the east coast and had little or no authority over the
Kannada country, still called themselves 'Lords of Karnataka\
The verse seems to point to a date when the name Karnataka had
become stereotyped as the designation of a part of the east coast.
This was done possibly about the time when Zulfiqar ‘^Ali Khan
(1692-1703 A.D.) was created the ‘'Nawab of the Karnataka’
by the Mughal emperor Aurangzib.^ If these suggestions are
correct, the Satpancd§adde§ambhdga cannot be assigned to a period
earlier than the first quarter of the 18th century. The manuscript
of the Tantra, here marked B, contains the date Saka 1674—1752
A.D. when apparently the manuscript was copied. But that the
iSaktisangama Tantra was composed sometime before 1744 A.D.
is indicated by the fact that two of its stanzas are quoted by

1. Ibid.^ p. vii.

2. As we have shown elsewhere, the Tantrasdra was composd in the
first half of the seventeenth century. See The SdHa Pithas^ p. 8o. Reference
has been made to a manuscript of this work bearing the date 'Samvat 15B6’

(Gode,.S'Wi^^, VoL I, pp. 154 ff., Poleman, Census oj Indie Manmnpts m
U* S, etc.). But Samvat in this case seems to be a misreading for Saka,

3. Gf. p. vi.

4. See infra.

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES 77

Harikrsna Misra m his Vazdi/cavaifmvasaddcara composed bet-
ween 1713 and 1744 A.D.^

The Satpancdsaddesavibhdga belongs to that class cf works
which is called the gazetteer literature in Sanskrit and on which
Pandit PT.P. Sastri wrote an interesting but short paper in JBORS^
VoL IV 5 pp. 14-25. The work gives an account of fifty-six
countries lying in and on the borders of India. The list is drawn
frorn the pilgrim’s point of view and most of the localities men-
tioned are holy places. The majority of the localities are again
Saiva and iSakta Tirthas and this fact indicates Tantric in-
fluence. The importance cf the number 56 is, however, not de-
terminable although it appears to be conventionally used to
mean ^alF as the numbers, 18, 36, etc. This number is found
adhered to in some other works of the class. The earliest work
containing a list of fifty-six countries seems to be the Candra^
garbhasutra or Candragarbhavaipulya (translated into Chinese by
Narendrayasas in 566 A.D. mentioning them in connection
with the Buddha’s manifestations in Jambudvipa. All of them
cannot be identified; but ‘apparently less than half are within
India proper’.® It has been suggested that the Sutra was
composed or re-edited in Central Asia; it is therefore possible
that the importance attached to the number fifty-six is essentially
foreign. Similar lists are found in some other medieval Tantric
texts; e.g.^ the Sammoha Tantra (composed before 1450 A.D*
according to Gode)^ gives two lists of fifty-six countries. These
two lists are quoted below since they can be compared fruitfully
with the list of the Satpancdsaddesavibhdga under study,

^ ^1 ^1 or 11?

Id (?) I

1. See Po?na Orient list, Vol. XXI, 1956, pp. 4 ff.

2. See Bagchi, Le Canon Buddkique^ Tome I, p, 270.

3. See Elliot, Hinduism and Buddhism^ VoL III, p. 215; Levi, BEFEO^
Tome V, pp. 261 f.

4. ABORI, VoL XIX, pp. 184 E

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

spf^T[^ (it:) I

^(=^)5!nrr{qt)^i^^;t^(^T:) ^Ti^(^)'TnKrt(^§^) i

HT ) (?) g-srr 1 1 K

1^ <.1^ (?TT ) 1

%qT55'(^:) Tft^sffr^^r(Tr)^srT(srr:) ii ^

5^(^)c^T 55T: f^pT:(^) I

^%?r: 5f^^(^:) 11 \9

+^^l<=H+lsCl<i-=i' ^=n'<<? 4 VS'^<<r: I

TR^(c^:) '^^4'Mi-^r(w) wtf%WT(OT:) II <;

spi r<^^r: ^iTTwr^ Crfs[t^:(^rFr) i

a(-iN‘Mcbr^ -' if (Trr:) ^FqTq; °t) ' i 1^ -i T: II %

<=bi^sfNi ( 5 rr:) ^fhr^ i

^fT^lRT^jt +1 (««l^ ^Mi»: 11 R

=^r5^«rr ('if) f%^: i

(?) ^(^)iiifst = 5 r ii ^

"rPTrsT: qr g ri 'gii^g i^ (?) (^: ) i

f (f )w^flrwrFsrrTf^^f: ^%^^+r(qiT:) ii v

q i^«t^(^fjt) %1% %^rcr; ^^r^ytsfq ^ \

^5=51^5^ (■5Gr)^r^ %^(fr:) n

^FfTa:: |

5if^(Tr5)^?srcr?r?^«rT;(? )qT^q51^(qTwlrq^)cra': ii^

)wft ^ ^(? )^5rr5!Fsr(??q')m^g^(5pr:) i

I, Quoted by P. G. Bagchi, Studies in the Xanras, pp. 97-99, from a
late Newari manuscript in tbe Durbar Library, Nepal. The text is faulty; but
it can be partially corrected with the help of other materials and may also be
used in correcting the latter. It is, however, possible that some of the mistakes
belong to the original . The Kadi and Uadi sets of Tan trie groupings are given
9 subdivisions each. There is also a fourfold division: i. Kerala extending
from Ahga to Malava, 2. Kdsm^ra from Madra-desa to Nepala, 3. Gauda
from felahatta to Saindhava, and 4. Vildsa prevalent everywhere.

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

The geographical information derived from the Satpa ncd-
SaddeMvibhaga is very interesting, and, in many cases, it throws
welcome light on some problems.^ But the difficulties in dealing
with the text are also numerous. The sources of the author’s
information are works like the epics, the Puranas and the Tantras
and, above all, travellers’ or pilgrims’ tales. The author might
have himself visited some of the places on pilgrimage. The
manuscripts he relied on may have misled him in some cases
with their wrong readings and many such mistakes may be also
due to the copyists of his work.^ Moreover the author, like
many of the Tantric writers of his time, seems to have only an
insufficient knowledge of Sanskrit. Partly due to this fact
and partly to the inadvertence of the copyists, a great con-
fusion has been created with reference to the actual position
of many countries and others bordering on them. As will be
indicated below in the notes on the countries, many of these
mistakes can be quite easily corrected.® It must, however,
be admitted that we cannot expect in all cases accurate geogra-
phical knowledge from our author who had to depend on
a pilgrim’s knowledge and had no opportunity of consulting
any scientifically compiled text on geography or a scientifically
prepared map. In some cases, therefore, we find that the posi-
tion of one country given in relation to another is only partially
true or even 'wrong.^ Owing to the same reason, some countries
are given as abutting on each other, though they are actuaEy
separated by other countries.^ The author generally mentions
places, usually those sacred to Siva and Parvati, as boundaries
of the countries. Some of these places are difficult to identify,
and, in many cases, the name of a god or goddess in a particular
temple actually indicates the whole district round the shrine.®
This difficulty is enhanced by the fact that, while in some cases
the boundai'y mentioned is to be included in the country, in others

1. See notes on verses 3> 39, 46, 49, etc.

2. Gf. verses 5, 43 3 47 j ^tc,

3. Gf. verses 19, 47, etc.

4. E. ^.5 verse 18 wherein ‘east* seems to be used for 'south-east*.

5. Gf. verses 13, 25, 33, 57, etc.

6. Gf. verses 12, 36, 39, etc.

GEOGRAPHY OF i^NCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

it is to be excluded from it.^ In many cases again, more than
one country are mentioned in the same area and they overlap
one another.^ In view of the above observations, it will be seen
that the SatpaficdsaddeSavibhdga only attempts a rough estimate
of the extent of countries, and sometimes the extent recorded
is wider or narrower than it actually is.

The 8th Patala of the Saktisangama Tantra^ Book III, is also
very interesting to the students of early Indian geography. It
gives an account of a fivefold division of India. The Chinese
authors generally refer to the Five Indies, viz^^ the Northern,
Western, Central, Eastern and Southern, and the Bhuvanakoia
section of the Puranas divide the country into Madhyadesa,
Udicya, Pracya, Daksinapatha and Aparanta, although some-
times the Himalayan and Vindhyan regions are added to them.
The Kdvyarmmdrhsd of Rajasekhara also refers to this fivefold
division when it speaks of Purva-desa beyond Varanasi, Daksi-
napatha beyond Mahismati, Pascad-desa beyond Devasabha
and Uttarapatha beyond Prthudaka. The five divisions of
India as given in the Saktisangama Tantra from the Tantric point
of view are different. They are Indra-prastha, Yama-prastha,
V^Funa-prastha, Kurma-prastha and Deva-prastha* We have
appended this interesting section as a supplement to the text
of the Satpancasaddesvibhaga.

{Saktisangama Tantra, Book III,
Chapter VII)

33S. g ftT P JT^I ' W II

1. Gf. verses 9, ii, 14, etc.

2. Gf. verses 4, 12, 14, 42, etc.

3. Not found in B and G.

4. Not found in B and G.

5. Not found in A.

6. G—

7. B — \

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-STX COUNTRIES

¥jTq-K*«T ^<=(^±■ 11 ^=^ - 11 (^ 1 :) i

^ qrwwr ^ u

<rHn«t,<3 1

#n^5fr WJT jfFPT: n

srqWTFT ^ WTT^® (^: ) i

^arNuT ^TiTTrr?fcRP5nn':’' ti

ifrrrt*r^5^rqi q^TT^ifF3r?f 1

?:fewFTf ?T|;5nf^ 'Tf?:3ftf%rcr: 11

yJHTW qTwf^T 5FTR5T: 1

: ’bM I TJ *■+< '=•■4 f%fs%T’55’.®

^11 ^r^: q-r<«#rT=T^:

^iiccriTT64^i<'^' g-^TTTfsg^pTrsp?r^“

rrT^WF?R¥?:%^; w 1 cq^ i s^r^n^r^n

=b I d n 1

wtwrfVr^T %1% »rif ^r%fTir;#f5T 11
^PtfTORT =#55rf^jfV f%i% 1

3TFr?fM5yiTn:«T

1. B—

2. G—

3. A — ^F^jnRFT'^; C —

4. c- q^.

5. AB-‘’ 5 Rqfqr:.

6. Read 'sfrRn^T'^”.

7. B— TrrT°.

8. A— ffe". _

g. A — rq^*=?ri ; B —

10. AB— q^.

„. c— ^ ^mrqiR^.

n .I" *?. O

12. B— ’TTT«r .

13. BC — "ni'+i-q.

14. B — c—

15. BG n=( 4 ^+ tiue possibly to

Read

the spelling

Better

read

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

=bU!?E^rfwr=^:^ II ??
1^: ^sraw® II

5Er>T55rF^Fft=?R: I

f^Jr^MR<d<=b|7 Jira'iTl'^Wlfw:® 1 1

5Tn^ f 5T;#-^^rsr:8 ii
^nTTTHT =^‘)?>.'^nrifscnTFra': i

%%% szn7n«W!crcqT: ii ?v

5fT^iir^<+i ^TRTT^ TRRrrs^r=^o i

^ ’FR^ri%fe5rW^: II W
TTiRTTsf WiTT'C'Rr M^^'^TRcf I

i+TirTd^^fl' ii i%

cmswf ^■•Hr<«T^* 5!S’55T^'wa^:^® i

sn^^fwr^® 'MRi'M cTW Rj^$% II ?V3

TTRfTTf^^® I

ftrG3% II

1. B-*^'K.

2. B — TT^r^; G — TT^^:*

2. B <] <^rs^' ;

3- B—

4 - Read WT^

5- AC — ^rr^T^.

6. A—

7. G— "?=^.

8. B—

9. A— «T<nTT57

10. B— JRTTT^

1 1 . AB — ^

^ : ; G —

Read

12. BG— ra%w^.

13. B— ffrir-

14. B — ^wrar^.

15- G~

16. Usually 3 f«rf^.

17. A- Possibly Read

p. 83, note t2.

15. A- f*Tf

19. A-5^^ C-%T>TR^-

Read 5fr55TS[% ."

f. Cf. below.

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

5 gT ' ^^Flrff srfeof |
’Tw^sfr JTFsrrfr ^arE^t^TfrrTTFrT; u
cnw: qf^wmr* i
3rnfl<<^ri oiiqf^c: n

3RF^: 5#5Tnr ’fl^r<iiT'W«ftTT'^ i

JTf(^i?fr sr^rsTi^w-uai's hr?

Jr#fw: i

^ sfl=WT '*1%^ II RR

% ^T«rr ^^IrrwFRr:® i
?^=s^r?2rFTr|^rrft' i

qT3=!^-|«-4^fi %%% ?rT^ifj(^>Tftrar: u

CN.

^Tf^fsnRnror:!® n "Ry
=Er crf^ror i

fkT[^: qf^c^ftf%gr:ii n

ri2 5 ^fsiTfsiTi-o^w qf^ir i

»l'^l?iT<c^^T'CSfT; t|

1. Read

2. Read SK'=M

3. A— 35 ft^^°. Read

4. AB-qirq^ qT. Read gTrft =W

5 . A— snrsrnr.

6. B — ld'<ii^l. Read Note that the rules of metre

are often disregarded.

7 . B-

8 . B— -iTKcT:

9 -

B—

10. Read «ltn*t<tf^.

11. AC— 5rsFti%^:.

12. A-^ 5 rr‘ '• Note that the word dak^a is used in our text as well as
in many other Tantra works in the sense of dak^tna,

13. AB —

14. B— 'TF^'^ 1 %^; G— corrected to qpi^'q^^.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

=^TqrRtizrF 5 r^ i

*Fn^raT ?T 5 II ^\9

3 p?<fRqi%winJr: ii

cr<i^#* ■e‘4Ti'<’-«T TnrsH^KG'b i

< rd‘^*ri ^ n 'R'K

^CaiMT ?nTR^ flWT^STRT^ I

?rrrrc«r

Fc^i^Fd® 1

?a‘TRFTrFiFfT ^ J%=5^PFn:FFT: 11

^ ’Tfr^rViw: ii

i(^'^ii<-«r cpiF^MTs^ qf^F i

FFi%^rr 5 ^ II

wt^^: srqftlw; n

?RFFTfJTd: q^

arnffqFcf^®

^FTPFq'

FFnFJT

q^T^-nFiT'^t^^ ■q'% 5 r 1 1
iftfTRF^^^ q|^qlT I
f5r55^‘ fsr^ 1 1

FfT^S 3 FcrF(q’:) fti% I

3 S>

^q^ f^Fr fs(% 11 ^vs^s

r. B-^“.

2. B-fdTq^F Read Tq-^ m.

3- A— B-^>q^.

4. BC- Cfdcj'J.g.

5 . B- q^JTqyi'd (^^TW: ?).

6 A— ; B — q^q^rpcf. Read q 4 ?>^ll'-G.

7. B — ; c — ^Tiq^dl”. A reads q^q^FTF^' I after

^Trffqt qqTT^-q' and thus omits the stanza referring to Vakranta-dc^a.

8. B—

9. B — qq I <^7 ; c — qFfFRftrqpFq •

10. A— 3 rrqV<q' ; B—aTFTKFrf.

11. B— =^FTTf^>.

12. B — ^ffFrFFfr.

13* Not found in A*

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

^riTrC«T (^T:) I

^nTr? 3 TFT: II

sn ^ iT^fiTw i

^ r^Z* 1

TIfT^Tt 5 r^ 5 % 3 T ^5 ^JT^:<IM II

3 qT%^'® fl'TI'l Vf^ I

fprsrrwl’^ srf^ i

’T^vjrqi^wq’ ( ^ ) ^ ii

=sr^ fe ^EPTTT^ W^FST'-^qv* I

ni'=l^=trictKi^9i; -W 5Tr(’R')Tr^?Tcr: I!

q^nrPrfT airq^i-d 57 %^?^ \

^"l^Td^lfq-sfr ^ -sgiiT ^|ss^r< II

qrnrPi^^si'^fTFT 1

■goi'^^r: d-MI’^Td: ^PTf^ dtiPM 11

C\ cv

srq- ^rqTT 5 ^ 5 i

'HKjt 5 rr-dd 5 ^ ff qrfspir:^® 11

^^i^5iri:d>T*7WPH'sqmqis 5 ^Rvzr: II

V:>,

,. A— Tr|^^; ^B— R'^^nc.

2 . Read ^■*rrq-.

4. AB—

5. C— ^Td.

6 . B—

7. B—

8. BC—

9. A— ; B—

,0. B— ^' 13 %^“; C—

1 1 . G — %dl<r=ti«i: -

12. B —

13. A — 3 r«^T^; B — SFTcq^-

14. B— C—

15 - A — sp^'Rr^T:.

16. B— 'qg-.

geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

=^(^)WSR 5 W^: li '^s’vs

^fikivi r; j,< j qTT ’Kr i

M|o-T(|<a - ^4 :qW ^3 sr^f^RT: II v^:

^>PTTt4i^ 1%% I
Tr^T%^; II

i%55^T?r^ ^^jTRf I

Tf<;ri KTiFnc II Ho

f%% I

Hi ' =bgii ' ^ : ^Fnrrwra': ii h?

^Tff ^F5Sf5=^ Mf^-q-H f^r% I

*Tc^PR%5r: 'H'HV^'ld: II

4<,TSq-T«iS^2flTTS^’ ^ I

*is^: 5?nTTW^: Trr?\^w^® 1%^s% ii

,10

'rf^^i ^ I

5 #'jrw 5 f)> 3 S 5 f>rq;'

%%t% ^^^TPTRTHnT:^^ II HV

3 T^p^: g i

-=?il^^5T: ^nTPeWt ^5g[W II HH

HFng^' ?nTTr«T i

1. Read TT^Tsfr
3 . Usually

A— qT 3 =^T^ra'.

A — r^<rtld^ evidently for

A- 2^-,^' ; B— 5f^°.

See below, note on Kaccha.

Better read qi^j%'<XcL ,

A-^'Hlsn=M^d^; Read ^TsH^Rd^, or

3 -

4 -
5 *

6 .

7 ‘

8 .

9. Read

10. AB— qror^TT^:, Should we rea^i ?

11. A — ^ER^rFftyPT: ; C-

13 . Read

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

?r«Hrrs^'^ q-?: 5 T^P': i
4==^ranwr >!#%• fsfir n \'-3

^Tqr sn^^rq- fsr%“ i
i^gvjTE^sfq’ %^r^5nR?q%^r5r; I

qrtfer: tj^ srq ? t l%ld i : 11

^ ■*ri‘-doq Ms^tiT'e

^ ?f#w: sfRgf

II K%

Supplexnent*

{S'aktisarigama Tantra, Book III,
Chapter VIII)

«ft% 5 tT 5 rq’ I

i^rtr sfr^f^T^s^ifq' +itA-MdH i

%qTSfW ^ M^+IM 11 X
ql^nfsi i

l^g’sr^ if^aififfr ii ^

TnjTFfrf^ 'JTPf ^IFT slT^tWcHT I

II 3

I. A—

a. C— ‘^ ^T p q ' qT STt^tTra" ’^rf^^:. Tn the place of this stanza, A

has a concluding verse which reads as follows after minor corrections :

tT4q‘=q-Rrfi'Hdr %5 tt sftwr i

■s

^ ^ =^ 3 = 511 %' 11

F rom B only.

Read Sr^fR.

Read ^’^T^T^rTrr^nR’ before this stanza. Better read cf^ ST^lf^
5[%ftr in place of ^i=S?nFsf Tlt^^TTOr

7. Read

8. Read

9 . Read

3 -

4 -

6 .

GEOGRAPHY OP AKCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Tiwirnf ii v

gfjH'uf^^t c3Rl%sraiT I

g;^TrT:^ u %

^rrarj^ ^^rrir i

-iT^^TTsir ^viT5yTiT^awT=^r?7T ii V9

NO *N

^rar^Trff ?m»TfiT«r i

II <;

ctcr: '5^ spTvITsr: snR% 1T%^^ I

^reoTT^ar wwr ^ PJW ■'BF^OT 11

ql^^^TTFTFra^ fsrr^ I

SD ^ "O -\

^ g^FTFr 5ra^i%?rT II ?o

TMFTti^cr^ ^^x\'H ^ cicr i

•O ‘s

^^T'cr: ^F?r ii n

sfRTWrWg® 5Fsi sftsRf WT ^ I

^iTsiw ^r^rrf^r •s'jw ^tfstcft ii

g^FTT^- I

^3^ ^TFT^: prrar 'rf^iT ^TgTV|%?TII
fRwr ^ wqffi.W ® I

1. The intended reading may be

2. Possibly we have to suggest »J^%.

3 . Read

Read Kavi-pati may be an error for kari^pati^ gaja~pati,

5* Read

6, Read g'Tcf=cigj''^®, But the rules of sandhi and metre are often

disregarded-

7 - Read
8. Read “^ftRXT-
9 - Possibly ff-

lo. Possibly sFl" .

ACCOLrNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

wrHtjt JTswrjr ii

^sfwrqr fm f%?rFTwf%^fqp=riT i

o c -*•

^JPTTWr^ Ii

^Fpir qfr^fqFr:^ I
q^er 5F«ni% %%f5r ^«FrTf?T ^ ii ?‘3

I. Anga (v. 2).

Anga is said to have extended from Vaidyanatha upto
Bhuvanesa. Vaidyanatha is no doubt the same as Baidyanath-
dham in the Santal Parganas District, very near the southern
frontiers of the Monghyr and Bhagalpur Districts, in Bihar.
Bhuvanesa reminds us of the celebrated Bhubaneswar in the
Puri District of Orissa.

The ancient Anga country is supposed to have comprised
the present Monghyr and Bhagalpur Districts of Bihar excluding
the parts lying to the north of the Ganges. Its capital Campa
is believed to have been situated at the confluence of the Ganges
and the Campa (modern Candan) and the two villages Campa-
nagar and Campapur, near Bhagalpur, are supposed to represent
the actual site of the ancient capital of Anga. Since this
view is supported by Hiuen-tsang and Al-Biruni,^ the city
should not be located near the Lakhisarai railway station in the

1. Possibly qd4-=i |*1

2. Possibly cp- or drl <•

s- Possibly qfrflfqgT:.

4. Cf. Sircar, Cosm. Geog. EJ^nd. Lit , p*35 and note, p. 36 note, pp.
77, 99, r04j ^52, i55-

90 GEOGKAPHV of ancient and medieval INDIA

■western fringe of the Monghyr District.^ There are traditions
regarding the expansion of the boundary of the Anga country
especially in the south. The Kaihasaritsdgara^ e.g., refers to the
Ahga city called Vitaiiliapura which was situated on the sea-
shore. The commentary on Vatsyayana’s KamasMia (VI. 6)
places Anga to the east of the Mahanadi.

It will be seen that Baidyanathdham is situated near the
southern limits of the original Ahga country; but V^-idyanatha
may here indicate the district round the holy place, and the
reference to Bhubaneswar may point to the country’s extension
towards the Bay of Bengal. The verse appears to place Ahga
to the south of the Ganges, and it must be admitted that there
is no definite evidence indicating the extension of the Ahga
country to the north of that river. According to some manus-
cripts of the Parana (see No. 37 below), V^-idyanatha-

Mahadeva lay in the Jahgala-Jharikhanda country which was
situated to the north of the Daruke^vara river and to the west
of the Bhagirathi, between Pancakuta (the former Paficakot
State in the Dhanbad District) and Kikata (the Gaya region
in South Bihar).

2. Vanga (v. 3).

The country of Vahga is described as extending from the sea
as far as the Brahmaputra. The sea is no doubt the Bay of Bengal
in the south, and the Brahmaputra, the northern boundary,
seems to indicate that portion of the river which bifurcates from
the Jamuna. Vahga therefore included the eastern part of the
Sxmdarbans in the south and half of the M'ymensingh District
in the north. The verse seems to exclude the region to the
east of the Brahmaputra and the Meghna (cf. v. 37 ) and agrees
with medieval epigraphic evidence which places the heart of
Vahga in the Vikramapura-bhaga comprising the Munshiganj
and Madaripur Subdivisions of the Dacca and Faridpur Districts
of East Pakistan. The original habitat of the Vahga people has
been discussed in a separate chapter (Ch. XI) below.

I. JBRS, Vol. XLI, P#rt 2, p. 8.
5 *- 25.35; 26.11G; 82.3-16.

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

3-4, Kalinga (v. 4) and Kdliriga (v. 5).

Kalinga extended from the east of Jagannatha as far as the
banks of the Krsna. Jagannatha here evidently refers to the
celebrated deity in the shrine of Puri in the Puri District of
Orissa. It is interesting to note that the Tantric texts recognise
Puri as one of the Pi tha-sthanas where the Bhairava is Jagannatha
and the Bhairavi Vimala. That the Puri region was also
called XJtkala is known from v. 42.

The name Kalinga has been used here in a wide sense.
The Mahdbhdrata (III. 114. 4) recognises the V^itarani river as
the north-eastern boundary of Kalinga, and at the time of Asoka
and Kharavela it certainly comprised the Puri-Cuttack region
in the east. At the time of the Eastern Gahga king Ananta-
varman Godagahga, the Kalinga kingdom extended from the
Ganges to the Godavari. The statement in the commentary
on the Kdmasutra (VI- 6) that Kalinga lies to the south of the
Gauda-visaya appears to indicate the extension of ancient
Kalinga as far as the Ganges. The expansion of Kalihga from
the Mahanadi to the river Krsna in the south seems to be
referred to in an inscription of the fifth century A.D.^ The
reference in our text may, however, be to the dominions of the
Suryavarhsi Gajapatis of Orissa. Their empire originally in-
cluded certain tracts lying to the south of the Krsna, though
they were later ousted from those areas by the kings of Vij^^ya-
nagara.

On the southern confines of Kalinga was a country called
Kalinga according to our text. But we do not know of any
country of this name to the south of the Krsna from any other
source. The author probably refers to the Nellore-Guntur
region which once formed parts of the dominions of the
Suryavartisi G^apatis of Orissa.

5. Kerala including Siddhikerala (v. 6)

The Kerala country is said to have extended from Subrah-

I. Gf. Ep. Ind,y Vol. XXX, p. 114. Some allied topics have been
discussed in a separate chapter (Ch. VII},

GEOGRAPKV OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

manya upto Janardana and Siddhilcerala to have formed a part
of it. Roughly speaking^ Kerala comprised the coastal region
inhabited by the Malayalam-speaking people. But our text
makes separate mention not only of two other Keralas called
Hariisa (v. 7) andSarvesa (v. 8), but also of Malayala (v. 15).

There are many temples of Subrahmanya (Karttikeya)
in South India and it is difficult to determine which of them is
meant. The same is the case with Janardana, as we can trace
several Janardana temples in the area in question. It is, how-
ever, possible that Subrahmanya here indicates the village of
that name in the South Kanara District, which is famous for its
temple and cattle fair, and that Janardana is the temple at
Varkala or V^-rkkalai between Quilon and Trivandrum.

6. Harhsa^Kerala (v. 7).

The territory including Ramesvara and Venkatesa is called
Harhsa-Kerala, a name otherwise unknown. The shrine of
Ramesvara and the celebrated Vehkatesvara temple at Tirupati
are quite well known; but it is difficult to determine whether they
are actually intended. If, however, the verse refers to the
country from Ramesvara to Tirupati, the name Hamsa-Kerala
would appear to indicate the same territory as the old
Dravida,

7, Sarmia'^Kerala (v. 8).

The Kerala country designated by the name Sarvesa ex-
tended from the Ananta-saila upto the city called Udupa. The
Ananta hill may refer to Trivandrum which is known as Ananta-
sayana or Anantapura. It is possible that the place is referred
toby Varadaraja (17th century ) whose Sarhskrtamanjari speaks
of the southern Tirthas called Janardana-ksetra, Gokarna-ksetra
(in the North Kanara District), An antasena (Dayana ?)-
ksetra, and Subrahmanya-ksetra, Ud^p^-pnra is possibly
Udipi, headquarters of the Udipi Taluk in the South Kanara
District. The celebrated Vaisnava saint Madhva was born
at Kalyanapura near Udipi-

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUKTRIES 93

8. Kdsmtta (v. 9).

Kasmira (Kashmir) is described as the country lying
between the Sarada-matha and the Kuhkum-adri and extending
over 50 yojanas^ The Kuhkuma hill cannot be satisfactorily
identified; but it may refer to the (saffron )-growing

plateau above Pampur near Srinagar, capital of Kashmir.^
Sarada-matha is evidently modern Sardi near the confluence of
the Kishenganga and Kankatori rivers in Kashmir. The shrine
of the goddess Sarada is mentioned in Kalhana’s Rdjatarangini
(VIII. 2556, 2706). According to Stein, the old shrine is in
complete ruins and it is substituted by the late Sarada temple
at Gusa (ancient Ghosa) which is now visited by the pilgrims.

9 . Kdmar upa (v. 10).

The country of Kamarupa is said to have extended from
Kales vara to the Sveta-giri and from Tripura to the Nila-parvata,
The ‘'Blue Mountain'* seems to be the Nil-adri or Nilakuta,
the name of the Kamakhya hill according to the Kdlikd Purdna
(Ch. 79, v. 74). The Ganesa-giri seems to be referred to as
lying in the heart of Kamarupa. Tripura can be quite satis-
factorily identified with Tripura (Tipperah ) which is now partly
in East Pakistan. The heart of ancient Kamarupa was the
Gauhati region of Assam. The celebrated temple of Kamakhya,
called the Toni-pltha^ lies not far from the city of Gauhati. Ac-
cording to Chinese evidence, Kamarupa lay to the east of the
Karatoya, while the Togini Xantra includes in the country the
Brahmaputra valley together with Rangpur and Cochbihar.

10. Mahdrd^tra (v. 11).

Maharastra (i. e. the Marathi-speaking area) extended
from Tryambaka to Karnata, and comprised Uijayini, Marjara-
tirtha and Kolapura-nivasini. Tryambaka is certainly the
celebrated Tryambakesvara Siva-linga near Nasik and here

1. Gf. Watt, The Com?nereial Products oj India, p. 429.

2. See Rdjatar,, trans., \^oL pp. 279, 289.

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAE INDIA

indicates the whole of the Nasik area. Ujjain and Kolhapur
are also well-known localities. Kolapura-nivasini appears
to be the goddess Mahalaksxni of the great shrine at Kolhapur.
As has already been pointed out, the inclusion of Ujjain appears
to refer to the Maratha conquest of Malwa during the rule of
Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720-40 A.D. ) 5 and in that case, we have to
assun;e that the Saktisangama Tanira^ or at least the Deiambhdga
section of it, was composed not earlier than the first quarter of
the 18th century, Karnata of this verse seejns to be different
from that of v. 16 and to indicate the original Karnafa, i.e, the
Kannada-speaking area. It is interesting to note that the
Kdmasutra (VI- 5. 29) commentary (middle of the thirteenth
century) locates Maharastra between the Narmada and
Karnata.

11. Andhra (v.l2).

Andhra is said to have been the country which has Jagan-
natha above and Bhramarambika below. Jagannatha is the
celebrated god of PurU but here the district round the shrine
seems to be indicated. Bhramarambika is no doubt the famous
Bhramaramba who is one of the 18 iSaktis in India and is enshrined
on the Srisaila with the god Mallikarjuna, one of the 12 Jyotir-
lihgas. It has to be noted that our author separates Andhra
from Tailahga (v. 14) and also from Kalihga (vv. 4-5).

12. Saurd^tra ov Gurjara (v. 13).

From the Kohkana up to Hihgulaja in the west lies, ac-
cording to the verse, the Sauras^ra country covering a hundred
yojanas on the coast. This country has also been called Gurjara.
Kohkana is the strip of land between the Western Ghats and the
Arabian Sea, and Hihgulaja is the famous Tirtha of Hihglaj
near the Arabian Sea (between lat. 25® and 26® and long. 65®
and 66®), more than 100 miles to the west of Karachi.

Surastra originally indicated the southern part of Kathia-
war ; but in the later period, the name Gujarat is found to be
used in a wide sense to comprise the whole of Kathiawar and
the adjoining regions. The verse in question mentons the wide
extent of the country. It must, however, be remembered that.

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

from a pilgrim’s point of view, Gujarat may be roughly placed
between the Northern Konkan (comprising the modern Thana
District of Maharashtra State) and the district round Hihglaj.
Pilgrims seem to have reached Somanatha in Kathiawar by
boat from the Northern Konkan and then proceeded to Hinglaj
again by boat.^

13. Tailanga (v. 14).

From the Sri-saila up to the middle of the distance between
the same and Coles a lies the Tailahga country. Coles a may
indicate the god of the celebrated Brhadisvara temple at Tah-
javur. Tailahga is the same as the name Telengana and is
related to Telugu. But the origin of this geographical name is
unknown. The author’s separation of Tailahga from Andhra
(v. 11) is comparable to that of Kalihga from Kalihga (vv.4-5 ).
Really Tailahga means the Telugu-sp caking area which is the
same as Andhra.2 An inscription^ of 1358 A. D. gives the
following boundaries of the Tilihga or Tailahga country :

that is, the Telugu country is bounded by Maharastra in the
west, Kalihga in the east, Pandya in the south and Kanyakubja
in the north. There is reference here to the old empire of the
Kakatiyas. Of course, in this age, the Kanyakubja country
was no longer a political unit ; but the reference may be to the
empire of the Turkish Sultans of Delhi.

14. Malaydla (v. 15).

The Malayala country, which is separated from the tracts
called Kerala (w. 6-8 ), is described as lying between Mukambika

1. Cf. V. 57-

2 . The description does not suit the present Telengana area of Andhra
Pradesh.

3. Ep, Ind., VoL XIV, p. 90.

GEOGRAI’HT OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

and the Malay-adri. The Malay-adri or Malaya range has been
identified with the Travancore hills. The goddess is no doubt
one of the same name worshipped at K.ollur or Barkalur in
the northern part of the South Kanara District, formerly in
Madras but now in Mysore. This goddess is mentioned in
inscriptions like C. P. Nos. 3-6A of A.R.Ep,^ 1927-28, and in
stone inscription No. 403 of the same year. See also the
tattvaratnakara^ Kallola V, Ch. I, vv. 27 ff.

15. Karrmta (v. 16).

The Karnata country is said to have extended from
Ramanatha upto Srirahga which is either iSrirahgam oppo-
site Tafijavur on the other side of the Kaveri or Srirangapattana
(Seringapatam) near Mysore. Ramanatha seems to be either
the Ramanathapuram (former Ramnad) District, or the Rajna-
natha Matha in the Madurai District, or the Ramesvara Tirtha
near the junction of the rivers Tuhga and Bhadra.^ The possible
reference to jSrirahgam or Ramnad as a boundary of Karnata
suggests that it is not the ancient Karnata country, the heart
of which was in the Kannada-speaking land, Kannada being
the same as Sanskrit Karnata. With the expansion of the empire
of the Kanarese kings of Vijayanagara, the name Karnata
extended over a large part of the Deccan. After the battle of
Talikota in 1665 A-D., the Vijayanagara kings withdrew first to
Candragiri (Chittoor District) and then to Vellore (North
Arcot District). But, as has already been indicated, even
when their kingdom became confined to a very small area .
far away from ancient Karnata, they were known as the Rayas
of Karnataka. About the end of the seventeenth century,
Zulfiqar ‘AlP (^circa 1692-1703 A.D. ), the progenitor of the

Nawabs of Arcot, was created the ‘Nawab of the Carnatic
(Karnataka )h It is not impossible that the verse actually
refers to the kingdom of these Nawabs of the Carnatic.

16. Avanti (v. 17).

Avanti is described as extending from the Tamraparni

I. Bomb. Gaz , Vol. I, Part ii, pp. 377,397. The place is identified

with Ramesvara near Alampur in the Mahbubnagar Dist., A. P. [EP. Ind-^
voL 33 > P- 332 n).

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SXX COUNTRIES

as far as the northern side of some hills and as the place of the
goddess Kalika. This Tamraparm is an unknown river and not
the celebrated rivulet of that name in the extreme south of
India.^ The hills referred to may be the Western Vindhyas.

Avanti is generally identified with the district round
Ujjain (in the former Gwalior State) which was its capital.®
Thus it roughly corresponded with modern West Malwa.
Kalika mentioned in the verse is evidently the Sakti of the
celebrated Mahakala of Ujjain. ^

17. Vidarbha (v. 18).^

The country of Vidarbha is said to have been situated to
the east of Bhadrakali and to the west of Ramadurga or with
Ramadurga to its west. This Bhadrakali appears to be the
same goddess as Kalika [of Ujjain] mentioned in the preceding
verse. Ramadurga reminds us of the former State of this name
in the South Maratha country lying between Belgaum and
Bijapur, although it is far from Vidarbha, i.e. modern Berar. The
Ujjain region lies to the north or north-west of Berar. Even if
we accept an old tradition according to which Avanti included
the Mahismati (modern Mandhata in the Nimar District or
Maheswar in the former Indore State) region on the Narmada,
it cannot be placed to its west. I have therefore suggested the
Yc^.din^ Bhadrakdlt^dak^apurve^ To the south-east of Bhadrakali.^

18. Alaru (v. 19).

The Maru country seems to be described as lying to the
north-west of the Gujarat region and to the north of Dvaraka
and also as famous for its camels. It is the great Indian desert
called the Thar or Rajputana desert. The land no doubt also
includes the Marwar (i.e. Maru) or Jodhpur area.

1. See above, p. 6o, note 3.

2. Gf. Malava below. No 20.

3. For the separate mention of Avanti and Malava, see below. No.
20 (p. 08, note 2); also Chapter XII.

4. For Vidarbha as the name of the Sadiya region of Assam, see JAJH,
Vol. I, p. 19.

GEOGRAPHY OE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

19. Abhtra (v. 20).

The Abhira country appears to be placed on the Vindhya
between the Kohkana in the south and the Tapi or Tapti in the
tiorth-west.

The Abhiras originally lived in the desert ; but they gra-
dually pushed towards the south.^ In the 1st and 2nd centuries
A.D., Aberia or the Abhira country lay not far from Surastra
or Southern Kathiawar. In the 3rd century A.D., the Abhiras
founded a kingdom comprising parts of the Northern Kohkan
and the Nasik region. But it is difficult to believe that this
area was called Abhira in the late medieval period. The
reference seems to be to the Ahirwas fort in the former Indore
State, lying at lat. 22° 3T, long. 76° 31', though, in that case,
we have to read in-KotikanMt purva-bhage, since the area in ques-
tion does not lie to the south of the Kohkan. The Kamos utra
(VI. 4. 24 ) commentary applies the name Abhira to the tracts
including iSrikantjha (Thanesar) and Kuru-ksetra (cf. also
Mbh, IX. 37. 1) .

20. Malava (v. 21 )

The great country of Malava is described as lying to the
east of Avanti and to the north of the -Godavari, The verse
evidently indicates Eastern Malwa, the ancient name of which was
Akara or EXasarna having its capital at Vidisa (modern Besnagar
near Bhilsa in the former Gwalior State). It has to be noticed
that the Kamos utra (VI. 5. 22 and 24) mentions Avanti and
Malava separately and that its conamentary identifies Malava
with Purva-Malava and gives the name Avanti to the Ujjain
region. 2 Sana’s Kadambari supports the same tradition when it
associates Malava ladies with the Vetravati (modern Betwa)
surrounding Vidila and speaks of Ujjayini as a city of the
Avanti country in the present West Malwa.^

I. See The Age of Imperial Unity ^ pp. ssi fT.

r: I

3* Gf. I i^q>i PidPl fi rTi . . .

ACGOHNT OF FIFTY -SIX COIJOTRIE3

21, Cola (v. 22).

The Cola country is said to have been situated between
Dravida and Tailahga (v. 14)3 and the three countries, which
were very similar to one another, were also known generally as
the [land of the] Lambakarnas.

The Cola country proper was the Tahjavur-Tirucirappalli
region. The verse, however, appears to refer to the country
of the Telugu Codas of the Anantapur-Guddappa area.

22. Pdncdla (v. 23).

Pahcala appears to have been described as lying at 13 or 30
yojanas from Indraprastha to the west and north of Kuru-ksetra,
Indraprastha is the modern Delhi region and Kuru-ksetra was
the country to the south of the Sarasvati and to the north of
the Drsadvati, in the Karnal-Ambala region of the Eastern
Punjab.

Aocient Pahcala was divided into two divisions, viz., the
northern and southern, and the former comprised roughly
the modern Rohilkhand Division of U. P- Ahicchatra, capital
of North Pahcala, has been identified with modern Ramnagar
in the Bareily District, while Kampilya, which was the capital
of South Pahcala, has been located at modern Kampil in the
Farrukhabad District to the south of the Ganges. But this is
not the country mentioned in the stanza. For its association
with the Pir Panchal range, see Chapter XII, Section ii, below.

23. Kdmboja (v. 24).

The Kamboja country is described as extending from
Pahcala and lying to the south-east of the Mleccha country.
This Mleccha is apparently the same as Maha-Mleccha of
V. 28 and indicates the Muslim countries on the north-western
borders of medieval India.^

f^f^^rfw^rpTT and

^ ^ in Siddhantavagisa’s ed., pp. 19, 183.
See also below. Chapter XII, Section iii.

I. Gf. Nos. 25 and 27 below-

100 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

The ancient Kambojas may be supposed to have lived in
various settlements in the wide area between the Punjab and
Iran^, to the south of Balkh (cf. No. 27). From a pilgrim’s
standpoint therefore the country may have been described as
having Pahcala (the region near about the Pir Panchal range)
in the east and the Muhammadan countries in the west. The
horses of the Kamboja country are often mentioned in literature
and inscriptions. The Kambojas living in Asoka’s empire are
mentioned in his inscriptions along with the Yavanas or Greeks
of the area around Kandahar where an edict in two versions
meant for these two peoples has been discovered. See below^
Chapter XII.

24. Virdia (v. 25).

The country called Virata or Vairata is placed to the north
of Vidarbha^ to the south of Indraprastha and to the east of
Maru-desa.

Of course Vidarbha is far to the south ; but the ancient
Virata or Matsya country actually lay in the Alwar-Bharatpur-
Jaipur region to the south of the Delhi area and to the east of
the desert. Vidarbha was never its southern boundary ; but
it may have been mentioned as a country lying in the south —
whatever be the distance — of the Virata country. One of the
Sakta Pithas is said to be in Virata where the Devi is Ambika
and the Bhairava Amrta, There was a Virata country in
Northern Bengal^ according to some manuscripts of the BhavUya
Purdna^ The Nivrti country (comprising Vardhanakuta-=
Bardhankot, Kacchapa—Gochbihar or, more probably, Kachhar,
and Rangpur) has there been described as :

■c c. "N

=q- =q I

This Virata is apparently connected with the ‘Birat-rajar Gadh’
in the Rangpur District, or B^iratta in the Dinajpur District, in

1. See No. 37 below.

AGCOtJKT OF fifty-six GOVHTKIES lOl

the northern part of Bengal and has nothing to do with the
country of the same name mentioned in our text.

25. Pandu (v. 26).

The Pandu or Pandya country is placed to the south of
Kamboja and to the west of Indraprastha or the Delhi region.

It is interesting to note that there is evidence of the exis-
tence of an ancient Pandu country in the Punjab. Ptolemy’s
Geography^ places the country of Pandoouoi (i. e. Pandava)
about the Bldaspes - Vitasta ^Jhelam and includes in it Sagala =
Sakala—Sialkot. Poros (i. e. Puru or Paurava),, contemporary
of Alexander, evidently belonged to this Pandu country. The
Vedic Index suggests that either the Jhelam region was the early
hojne of the Purus where some remained while others migrated
to the east, or that that region was later conquered by the Purus
who had been settled in the east. But it is difficult to deter-
mine how this ancient tradition finds an echo in the late medieval
text before us. See Chapter XII, Section ii.

26. Videha or T'airabhukti (v. 27).

The Videha country, also called Tirabhukta or Tairabhukti,
is described as extending from the banks of the Gandaki as far
as the Gamp-aranya. Gandaki-tira here appears to indicate
the southern boundary of the country and the place where the
modern Gandak falls into the Ganges. Camp-aranya is the
modern Gamparan which seems to be the northern boundary.
The name Tirabhukti still survives in the modern form 'Tnhut.
It is the same as the Darbhanga-Muzaffarpur region of Upper
Bihar to the north of the Ganges.

27. Bdhllka (v. 28).

The Bahllka country is said to be bordering on Kamboja
and situated to the east of Maha-Mleccha, Bahlika was Bactria
(modern Balkh) in the north of Afghanistan; but Vahika was an
old name of the Punjab. The reading Bahlika is better as the

I. VII. i. 46.

102 GEOCRAPH’^ OF At^TGlENT MRDIj&VAL INOlA

country is placed between Karnboja and the great Mleccha
world of the west. It is interesting to note that the Kambojas,
elsewhere associated with Pahcala (v. 24) are here connected
with the northern part of Afghanistan.

28. Kirdta (v- 29).

The Kirata country is described as extending from Tapta-
kunda as far as Rama-ksetra and as lying on the Vindhyas.
Tapta-kunda may indicate the hot springs at Rajgir in the
Patna District, Bihar, or those near Monghyr. Rama-ksetra
may be Rama-giri or Ramtek. Kirata here seems to indicate
some Vindhyan hill tribes, though in old literature they are
usually connected with the Himalayan region. The fact is that
such names as Pulinda and Kirata really indicated particular hill
tribes ; but later their meaning expanded so as to signify any hill
tribe.

29. Vakrdnta (v. 30).

The V^kranta country is said to have extended from the
Karatoya as far as Hihgulaja and abounded in a large number
of Mlecchas. The Karatoya river mentioned here is not easy
to identify; but the reference to the Hihglaj area as one of the
bordering regions suggests that Vakranta-desa is possibly not
Wakhan, but very probably Makran between Baluchistan and
Persia. Pargiter^ notices three Karatoyas; the first a tributary
of the Brahmaputra in North Bengal, the second belonging to
the Himalayan region in North India and the third rising from
the Vindhy^ range. The second seems to be indicated in the
verse; but the plurality of the name may also have been
caused by wrong readings.

30. Khurdiana (v. 31).

The country called ELhurasana (Khorasan) is described as
extending from the Hingu-pitha, i.e. Hingulaja, upto Makkesa,
‘lord of Mecca% which is an imaginary Siva-lifiga at Mecca,

I, Markaxideya Purdxia, trans., p. 301.

ACCOUNT OF jFIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

103

the mc^t sacred of the Muslim holy places. According to a popu-
lar Bengali tradition, apparently influenced by the Tantras, in
an underground room underneath the floor of the Kaaba at
Mecca there lies Siva in deep sleep 5 pious Hindus are never
allowed to approach him y if, however, a devout Hindu could
place on his head a bilva-patra only once, the god would at once
rise up and destroy all the Muhammadans of the world.

Khorasan is the north-eastern province of Persia, to the
west of Afghanistan ; but the name here seems to be employed
to indicate the kingdom of Persia as known in the late medieval
period.

31. Airaka (v. 31 ).

In the northern part of the country of Khurasana, i.e. the
Persian kingdom or Western Asia, is placed Airaka,i.e. Iraq.

32. Bhotanta (v. 33).

The Bhotanta country is said to have extended from
Kasmira and lay to the west of Kamarupa and to the south of
Manasesa. Bhofanta is evidently Bhofan and M^asesa refers
to the god iSiva at the Manasa lake (Mansarovar) in the
Himalayas. Modern Bhotan is a small state to the north of
Bengal; but the Tibetan people are also known as Bhautta or
Bhofa. Taken in this wider sense, Bhotanta may actually be
placed between Kasmira in the west and Kamarupa in the east.

33. Cina (v. 34).

Gina-desa is described as lyiug to the south-east of Mana-
sesa. The country to the south-east of the Man-sarovar is
Tibet which appears to be indicated by the name Gina in the
verse. Tibet formed a part of the dominions of the Chinese
emperors. Abul FazFs ^Ain^i--Akbarz refers to Tegu which
former writers called Gheen, accounting this to be the capital
city’, and seems to include Burma in the Gina country.^ Accor-
ding to Pargiter^ Giua comprised the country of Tibet ^along

I. Jarrett^'s trans., Vol. II, ed. Sarkar, p. 132.

l04 OjfeOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL tNDiA

the whole range of the Himalayas.’^ The Cinas are sometimes
linked in the Mahdbhdrata with the Kambojas of the north-west^
and often mentioned among the retinue of the king of Prag
jyotisa or Assam in the east^ and are also sometimes placed near
the source of the Ganges in the country lying midway between
the two regions,^

34. Mahd-Cina (v. 35).

The Mahacina country is said to have extended from the
Kailasa-giri and from the place of origin of the Sarayu as far as
Mohga. Mount Kailasa is that part of the Himalayan range
which lies to the north of the Man-sarovar, and the origin of
the Sarayu (Ghogra) is not far off. Mohga and its variations
appear to refer to Mongolia to the north of China. Mahacina
therefore refers to China proper.^ The suggestion is supported
by the fact that, in the seventh century A.D., the Chinese traveller
Hiuen-tsang described his native country as "the Mahacina
of the Indians.’®

35. .Kepdla (v. 35)

The country of Nepala is placed between Jate^vara and
Yogini which seems to refer to Yoginipura or Delhi. The Nepala
country to the north of Bihar and U.P. is well-known; but
Jatesvara cannot be satisfactorily identified. It is possible that
the original reading was Jalpesvara, the famous iSiva of the
Jalpaiguri District in North Bengal, sometimes referred to in
the later Puranic literature.

36. Silahatta (v. 36).

The country called iSilahatta is described as extending

1. Mark. Pur.^ trans-, p. 319, note.

2. VI. 9. 66,

3- V. 19. 15.

4. III. 177. 12.

5. For Gina and Mahacina, see Hobson-Jobson, s. v. China and
Macheen. The evidence of our text is supported by the ^Am-i-Akba7z^ trans.
Jarrell and Sarkar, Vol, II, p. 13 1.

6. Gf. Watters, On Tuan Chwangs Travels m India, Vol. I, p. 349.

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

105

from Ganesvara as far as the sea. Gancsvara appears to l>e
identical with the Ganesa-giri placed in the heart of the country
of Kamarupa (v. 10). iSilahatta is no doubt modern Sylhet
which, however, does not now extend up to the Bay of Bengal.
The land lying to the east of the Aleglma in South-East Bengal
(now mostly in East Pakistan) st erns to be iiicluded in Silahatta^

37. Gauda (v. 38).

Gauda is said to have extended from the V^3.hga country
upto Bhuvanesa (i.e. Bhubaneswar in Orissa). In modern
times, Gauda implies the whole area inhabited by the Bengali-
speaking people. Originally, however, the country seems to
have comprised the present ZMurshidabad District with the in-
clusion of the southernmost part of Jvlalda. The Chinese travel-
ler Hiuen-tsang describes Karnasuvarna as the name of both the
kingdom and capital of Sasahka who has been called 'the lord
of Gauda’ in the Harsacarita. According to the Chinese pilgrim,
the Raktamrttika-vihara lay in the suburbs of the Karnasuvarna
city and the country was about 730 or 750 miles in circuit.
As the monastery referred to has been located at modern Rahga-
mati (Sanskrit Rakta-mrtiikd)^ of Karnasuvarna or Gauda
country can be identified with the Murshidabad District.
This identification is again supported by epigraphic evidence
and an interpolated section of the Bharnsya Purdna^ which says:

^ ^ II

It is said that Gauda (comprising Navadvipa, Santipura,
Maulapattana and Kantakapattana ) lies between the river
Padma and the Vardhamana district and forms a part of Pun^ra,
a name here used to indicate Bengal without its south-eastern
part, but with some parts of Bihar and Orissa, The southern
part of the Malda District comprising the site of the city of Gauda

I. See Ind,^ Vo|. XXX\TI, pp. 25fr.; MS. No. 3582 of the
Asiatic Society, Calcutta.

106

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIEHi' AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

(Gaur) seems to have been to the south of the Ganges and includ-
ed in the Gauda country in the early medieval period, and the
capitals of some of the Pala and Sena kings in Gauda were
situated near the modern site of Gaur. Our work divides Bengal
in two broad divisions, viz. East Bengal (Vahga ) and West Bengal
(Gauda). It is interesting in this connection to note that
Muslim historians sometimes called this country ‘Gaur-BangaP.
Gauda offers one of the numerous instances of the expansion of the
connotation of a geographical term.i

38. Mahd-KoSala (v. 38).

The Maha-Kosala country is placed to the south of Gokar-
nesa, to the north of Aryavarta, to the west of Tairabhukti and
to the east of Mahapuri. Gokarna is the name of a village on
the Bagmati in Nepal. Aryavarta is not the same as that
( = North India) defined by Manu, but the Tantric Aryavarta
defined as

•RTT II

STPTfsRf 1% ^iTRr: ^

Mahapuri appears to refer to Delhi which was the
capital of the Mughul emperors at the time of the composition
of the work to which the verse belongs. Maha-Kosala is no
doubt the same as old Kosala ruled by the Surya..vanisi kings
from their capital at Ayodhya near modern Faizabad in Oudh
(Ayodhya). The name Maha-Kosala thus appears to be
wrongly applied now to indicate South Kosala, the Raipur-
Sambalpur-Bilaspur region in Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. ^
If we prefer the reading sarmtah to p urvatah^ Mahapuri would
possibly indicate Ayodhya, the ancient capital of the Kosala
janapada.

1. Gf. Chapter V below.

2. Bagchi, Studies in the Tantras^ p io8. Here also the name PahcMa
appears to be associated with the Pir Pantsal range.

3. See Pargiter, Mark. Pur.^ trans., pp. 308, 342-

ACCOUNT OF PUFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

107

39. Magadha (v. 39).

The great country of Magadha is desciibed as extending
from Kalesvara or Vyasefvara as far as the Tapta-kun^a. Kales-
vara is evidently the celebrated Kala-Bhairava of Varanasi
and Vyasesvara reminds us of Vyasa-Kasi. Tapta-kun^a seems
to refer to the hot springs {e.g., Sitakunda ) near Monghyr. The
Magadha deia is therefore placed between the Benares region
and the Monghyr District. The ancient Magadha country com-
prised the present Patna and Gaya Districts of Bihar and had
its capital originally at Girivaja-Rajagrha (Rajgir) and then
at Pataliputra (near Patna), both in the present Patna District.

40. Kikata (v. 40).

The Kikafa country is placed in the southern part of
Magadha, the northern half of which is called Magadha proper.
ELika^a is described as extending from the Garan-adri upto
Gridharakufa. The celebrated Grdhrakuta or ‘Vulture Peak’
(modern !§aila-giri ) was situated near Rajagrha, modern Rajgir
in the Patna District. Caran-adri appears to indicate either
the Visnupada hill at Gaya, or Chunar. In the Puranic lite-
rature, Kikata is essentially connected with the Gaya region.
But the traditional identifications of Kikata with Gaya-prade^a
and with Magadha appear to be both right. The verse under
study indicates that originally the Gaya region was called Kikata
and the Patna region Magadha; but soon the former became
a part of the latter.

41. Utkala (v. 41).

The country which had Jagannatha (the god in the shrine
at Puri on the sea) on the boundary is described as Utkala.
The original connotation of the name and its later expansion
have been discussed in a separate chapter ( Gh. X) below.

42. iSrikuntala (v. 43 ).

The country called Srikuntala is placed between the Kama-
giri and Dvaraka. V. 44 shows that the Kama-giri was far to the

108

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

north of the desert. In this connection^ it is interesting to note
that an inscription of 1 1 76 A.D-^ represents a ruler of the Kama
country as a tributary to the king of the Sapadalaksa Mountain
(i.e, the Siw alik range). It is also not impossible that the name
Kama has something to do with that of Kumaon. The iSri-
kuntala country thus appears to be placed between the Siwalik-
Kumaon region in the north and Dvaraka in the south. Sri-
kuntala is, however, otherwise unknown and the well-known
Kuntala lies in the Kanarese area. Is Srikuntala a mistake
for Srikanthaka or the Thanesar region? The wide extent of the
iSrikantha country can, however, only be accepted if we refer to
the time of Harsavardhana (606-47 A*D. ), king of Thanesar
and Kanauj.

Pargiter2 notices three Kun talas, one in the Deccan, the
second near Chunar to the south of Varanasi and the third hn
the westh This third Kuntala may be indicated in the verse. It
is, however, probable that this plurality of Kuntala as accepted
by Pargiter is due to wrong readings which might have misled
even the author of the verse in question.

43. Huna (v. 44).

Huna-desa is placed to the south of the Kama-giri (see No.
42 ) and to the north of Maru-desa, i.e. the Desert, and is called
the land of heroes- The Hunas had a place in Indian politics
even long after the disintegration of the extensive empire of
Toramana and Mihirakula. The Harsacarita places the Huna
country in the Punjab region practically suggesting the same
area as the verse under study. Huna royal houses are mentioned
in the records of the Pratiharas, Kalacuris and others. The
Hunas are ultimately known to have been regarded as one of
the 36 clans of the Rajputs.

44. Konkand (v. 45).

Kohkana has been described as lying on the sea-coast. It
seems to have extended from the Ghatta as far as the middle of

1. Ind. Ant , Vol. X, p. 342. Sapadalaksa may also be th.e Sambhar
region and Kama, modern Kaman near Bharatpur (cf. Ch. XVIII below).

2. Mdrkandcya Pur ana ^ trans., p. 308.

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY- SIX COUNTI?TES

109

the district round KotKa. The Kohkan, as we knowj is the strip
of land between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. Ghana
therefore appears to indicate the Western GhatSs while Kotisa
reminds us of the Kotesvara Mahadeva near the sea, not far
from Bhnj in the Gujarat State, and Kotesvara near Udipi
in. the South Kanara District of M>sore, the first of the two
being out of question in the present context. Our Kotl'^a
may be the same as Saptakotisvara of the inscriptions a^^d
coins of the Kadambas of Goa.^

45. Kaikaya (v. 46).

Kalkaya is placed between the Brahmaputra and Kama-
rupa. The ancient Kekaya country lay in the Punjab to the
east of Gandhara (the Peshawar-Rawalpindi region). But a
Kekaya kingdom is known to have existed in the northern part
of Mysore in the fifth century A.D.^ The Kaikaya country
mentioned in our verse seems to be a place in North-East Bengal,
which was possibly connected by local traditions with the ancient
Kekayas of the Punjab. Kaikaya here may even indicate the
land of the Kukis in Assam and Manipur. If this identijficatlon
is accepted, it shows how such tribal names were given a classical
colour in the late medieval works.

46. Saurasena (v. 47).

The iSaurasena country seems to be described as extending
from Magadha in the south-east upto the territory to the west of
the Vindhya. The ancient Surasena people lived in the Mathura
region. Greek writers refer to the Sourasenoi and to their cities
Methora (Mathura) and Kleisobora (possibly Krsnapura™
Gokula). This old Surasena or iSaurasena country therefore
had nothing to do with Magadha, the ancient name of South
Bihar- It must, however, be remembered that our author
extends Magadha as far as the Varanasi district in the west.
He possibly believed that the iSaurasena country extended from
the Varanasi region up to the Mathura district which is to the

I- See hid. Ant., Vol. XIV. pp. 288 fi'. ; XIoraes, Kudamba Kula. pp,
383-84.

2. See Sircar, Sue. Sat., pp. 313 ff.

110 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANJ> MEDIEVAL INDIA

west (actually to the north-west) of the Vindhyan range. It
may also be suggested that the text requires emendation and
that the intention was to say ^to the north of the Vindhya\ It
is interesting to note in this connection that the Kdmasutra (VI.
9. 28) commentary locates Saurasena Kausdmbydh dak^inatah
(sic — pa^cimatafi) kule {TamundyaK].

47. Kuru (v. 48).

The Kuru country appears to be described as extending
from the Hastinapura region and as lying to the south of the Kuru-
ksetra tracts with Pahcala lying in the west. Hastinapura^ capital
of the Kuru country^ has been identified with a locality in
the Meerut District, U. P. According to the Mahdbhdrata^

that is to say, the land called KLuru-ksetra lay between the rivers
Sarasvati and Drsadvati in the Eastern Punjab. This land
has been called Brahmavarta in the Manusmrti.^ The verse
extends the ELuru country to Pancala (i.e. the region of the
Pir Panchal range and river) in the west (cf. Nos. 22-23
above).

48. Simhala (v. 49).

The great country called Sirhhala, the best of all countries,
is placed to the east of Maru-desa and to the south of the
KLam-adri. This Simhala cannot be identified with Ceylon.
It is evidently In the Punjab-Rajasthan region and reminds us
of the kingdom of Siiiihapura mentioned by Hiuen-tsang,
The capital of this kingdom has been identified with Khetas
or Katas in the Jhelum District, which is, next to Jvalamukhi,
the most frequented place of pilgrimage in the Punjab. Tantric
literature locates Sambhala (probably Sirnhala) and Lankapuri
in the Swat-Kashmir region. ^ For Kama, cf. p. 108 above.

I- III. 83. 4 and 205.

2. II. 17-

3 . Bagchi, op. cit.^ pp, 39 - 40 .

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

111

49. Pulinda (v. ^0).

Tbe country of Pulinda is placed to the east of Silahaffa
and possibly to the south of Kamarupa. The text reads ‘to the
north of Kamarupa’ ; but no locality to the north of Kama-
rupa, the heart of which was the Gauhati region in Assam,
could have anything to do with Silahatta, i.e. modern Sylhet.
The Pulindas were a hill tribe usually connected with the
Vindhyan range. Pargiter^ notices several branches of the
Pulinda tribe^ viz, (1) a western branch, (2) a Himalayan
branch related to the Kiratas and Tahganas, and (3 ) a
southern branch. The second branch may be intended here,
though the plurality of the name may be due either to mis-
readings in the manuscripts or to the fact that the term was
sometimes used to indicate any hill tribe- Pulinda of our text
may possibly refer to tribes of the hills of Assam, but more pro-
bably to the land of the Paliyas or Rajvarasis of North Bengal.

50, Kaccha (v. 51),

The Kaccha country is placed to the east of Ganesvara and
to the north of the sea, and is possibly also called Sevana. If
Ganesvara is the same as Ganesa^giri in the heart of Kamarupa,
Kaccha may be identified with Kacchapa (possibly Kacchar or
Gochbihar ) placed by the Bhavuya Purdym in the north-eastern
region of Vanga.^ But the expression Ho the north of the sea^
seems to indicate Kutch. The identification of Kaccha and
Sevana, possibly suggested in the verse, offers another difficulty.
Sevana, i.e. Seuna-desa, was the name of modern Khandesh.
It indicated the kingdom of the Yadavas who had their capital
first at Sinnar near Nasik and then at Devagiri, modern I>au-
latabadin the Aurangabad District of the present Maharashtra
State, The Seuna country may therefore have been the Nasik-
Daulatabad region or even the vast kingdom conquered by the
powerful kings of the Yadava dynasty. But it is doubtful if the
memory of the Yadava age lingered down to the late medieval
period. Kaccha may possibly also indicate the district round
Bhrgu -kaccha, modern Broach near the mouth of the Narmada.

X. Mdrkmndeya PuJdria, crans., pp. 316, 335, 338,

2. See No. 24; cf. No. 37.

112 GEOGRA.PHV' OF AiSTGIENT AJTD MEDIEVAL IMDIA

The meaning of the word kaccha appears to be ^a region, on
the sea-coast, and it is possible that different Kacchas (including
Kutch and Kacchapa), referred to above, have been confused in
the verse. As to Kaccha„ a medieval tradition refers to the
expansion of the Eastern Sea (Bay of Bengal) in the heart of
Bengal as far north as Devikotta or Bangadh in the Dinajpur
District, now in East Pakistan.^ Long ago the sea no doubt
touched the central areas of Bengal at least through the mouths
of the big rivers falling in it. But the medieval tradition referred
to above is apparently due to the existence of big lakes called
bils^ like the Ghalan, in the Rajshahi-Bogra-Mymensingh area*

The language of the verse may suggest that Sevana was
different from Kaccha, the description of the former having
been omitted through oversight. But in that case, the number
of countries would be more than fifty-six.-

51. Matsyd (v. 52).

The Matsya country is placed to the north of Pulinda and
to the east of Kaccha. This country is described as abounding
in fish. If Pulinda of this verse is the same as that in verse 50,
and Kaccha is the same as Kacchapa (Kacchar or Gochbihar),
this Matsya-desa may be identified with Virata placed to the
north-east of Bengal in a verse of the Bhavi^ya Purdna,^ Virata
was the celebrated epic king of the Matsya country which has
been located in the Alwar-Jaipur-Bharatpur region^ and its capi-
tal Virata-nagara has been identified with modern Bairat in the
former Jaipur State. But this ancient Matsya country seems
to be mentioned in our text as Virata (verse 25 ). It is difficult
to say whether the author’s intention was to distinguish between
Matsya and Virata, both located in the same area or whether he

1. Gf ma voi xvir, p 471—

This may explain the epic and Puranic tradition
regarding the extension of the Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa country down to
the Bay of Bengal. Al-Biruni speaks of ‘the mountains of K.amru (Kama-
rupa), which stretch away as far as the sea’ Alley miPs India:, Part I,

p. 201 ).

2. Cf. however p. 71, verse 8 of Group I and verse 5 of Group II.

3. See No. 24 (above, p. 100),

ACCOUNT OF FIFTY-SIX COUNTRIES

113

has made a confusion between the actual Matsya country in
Eastern Rajasthan and a tract of land in Bengal.

52. Madra (v. 53) .

The Madra country is located south-castwisc between
Vairata and Pandya. Vairata is evidently the same as Virata
(No, 24 ) and Pand.ya the same as Pan<Ju (No, 25 ), The ancient
Madra people lived about the modern Sialkot District of the
Punjab. Their capital Sakala has been identified with Sialkot.
Madra however has been used here in a wider sense., as Virata
or Matsya lay far to the south of the ancient Madra country.

53. Saumra (v. 54).

The Sauvira country seems to be placed to the west of
Saurasena and to the east of Kanthaka and is called the worst
of all countries. Ancient Sauvira was situated to the east of
the Lower Indus and included Multan in the north. Saura-
sena, i.e. the Mathura region, was far to the east. Kan^haka
cannot be satisfactorily identified ; but it reminds us of the
Kathaioi tribe located by the classical authors between the
Jhelam and the Ghinab. This Kanthaka does not appear to be
identical ^^vith jSrikantha in the eastern part of the Punjab. Or,
can the intended reading be Kacchakdt paicime^ *to the west of
Kutch^ ?

54. Lata (v. 55 ).

The Lata country seems to be placed to the west of Avanti
and to the north-west of V^^idarbha (Berar). The ancient
Lata country was the district between the Lower Mahi and the
Tapti ; but sometimes it also extended beyond the Mahi.
Bhrgukachcha (Broach) and Navasarika (Nausari) belonged to
this country. The Kdmasutra (VI- 5. 26) commentary also
locates La^a to the west of Apara-Malava, i.e. Western Malwa.

55. Varvara (v. 56).

The great country called Varvara is described as extending
from Mayapura and as lying to the north of Sapta-srnga.

114

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Varvara reminds us of Barbaricurn of the Periplus, which lay on
the sea at the mouth of the Indus and belonged to the country
of Scythia (Indo-Scythia of Ptolemy), i.e. the Saka country,
about the beginning of the Christian era.^ It is tempting to
identify Mayapura with the place of that name near Hardwar I
but it is far away from the ancient Barbaricurn. Sapta-srnga
is again a famous place to the north of Nasik. The image of the
eighteen-armed goddess of this place is 12 feet high.2 A verse,
discussed in Section III below, mentions both Mayapura and
Saptasrhga ; but it is difficult to determine their position with
reference to the country of Varvara. Gan Mayapura be the
Mayapur Pass in the Jhansi District, U. P. ?

56. Saindhava (v. 57).

The great country called Saindhava, i.e. Sindhu, is described
as extending from Lanka-pradesa as far as Makka. Makka
may indicate here the Muslim lands of Western Asia in general.
But Lanka is not easy to identify. It is difficult to determine
whether the country called Simhala= Sirhhapura of the Punjab
is intended by the author. Of course, it is possible, in consi-
deration of the travellers’ point of view, to identify it with
Ceylon. They might have reached Sind from Ceylon which
was on the way to Mecca. The ancient Sindhu-desa lay to
the west of the Lower Indus and was not exactly the same as
modern Sindh.

Ill

The Five Prasthas (v. 2).

The Prasthas or Tantrik territorial divisions of ‘India’
are enumerated as five, viz, (1) Indra-prastha, (2) Yama-
prastha, (3) Varuna-prastha, (4) Kurma-prastha, and (5)
Deva-prastha. The word prastha means ‘a level expanse’, ‘level
plain’, ‘tableland on the top of a mountain’, ‘the top of a
mountain’, etc. The word also indicates ‘going on a journey’

1. Tile editors of the LelzhapaddhoXx (G.O.S.), p. 98, identify
or Varvara with Babriavad in Kathiawar. But see below. Chapter XIV,
Section, ii.

. a. Ind. Cult., Vol. VII, p. 450,

Account of fifty-six countries

115

and hence possibly^ 'pilgrimage.’ This fivefold division of India
may therefore have been made from a Tantric pilgrim’s point
of view. The association of Aivapati and Narapati with Indra-
prastha and Yama-prastha respectively reminds us of the medie-
val imperial title Asvapati-Gajapati’-Narapati^rajaAray^adhipatiA

1. Indra-prastha (w. 3-6).

Indraprastha, the name used in ancient literature to indi-
cate a city in the suburbs of Delhi (see v. 4), appears to have
been connected with Yoginipura which is another name of
Delhi- In the eastern district of our Indra-prastha lay Mathura
and Gokula, the famous pilgrim-spots of North India. Vrnda-
vana, which is near Mathura, is placed at the kola-^desa^ i. e.
side, of Indra-prastha while Hastinapura in the Meerut District
lay in its north. Dvaraka is placed to the west and Gadavarta
to the south. Dvaraka is the famous tirtha in Kathiawar.
Gadavarta, quite well-known from the Harivamia as the place
where the gadd or club thrown by Jarasandha against
Krsna at Mathura fell, is also to be placed not very far from
Mathura. This Indra-prastha is therefore bounded by Delhi
and Meerut in the north, Gadavarta in the south, Mathura in
the east, and Dvaraka in the west. Roughly speaking, it in-
cluded the Meerut region in the north-east and parts of Kathia-
war in the south-west with its centre at the city of Indraprastha
(Delhi). It is stated to have been the land of the Aimpati or the
lord of horses or cavalry.

2. Tama-prastha (vv. 7-9).

Yama-prastha seems to be placed in the south {i.e. to
the south of Indra-prastha) with Somesvara in the west,
Sapta-srhga in the east, Mayapura in the north and Vyahka-
^esa in the south. Somesvara and Vyankatesa are evidently
the gods at the celebraccd temples at Somanatha in Kathiawar
and at Tirupati in the Ghittur District of Andhra Pradesh.
Mayapura and Sapta-srnga are no doubt the places of these
names mentioned in connection with Varvara (No. 55 ). There

2- Cf. Sircar, Indian Epigraphy^ pp^ 33^-39 .

116

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

is reference to another locality called Sahkhavarta which
is possibly also called Maya-ksetra. Roughly speaking, Yama-
prastha or the southern prastha comprised parts of Kathiawar
in the north-west and the district round Tirupati in the south.
This was the seat of the Jsfarapati or the lord of men or foot-
soldiers.

3. Varuna^prastha (w. 10-13)

Varuna-prastha or Varuna-prastha is said to have
Jagannatha [in the Puri District, Orissa] in the east, Makkesvara
[at Mecca] in the west, Hihgula [in Sind] in the north and
Trailokyavijaya^ in the south. The seven Sdgaras and Samudras
(seas and oceans ?) are placed beyond or near this prastha.
Trailokyavijaya appears to indicate some deity or pilgrim-spot
in Ceylon. There is reference also to a place called Rajavarta,
Thus Varuna-prastha was evidently connected with the sea and
comprised most of the districts on the coast of the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal. This was probably the seat of the Gqjapatt
or the lord of elephants (cf. the Gajapatis of Orissa).

4. K urma-prastha (w. 14-16).

Kurma-prastha is placed to the north of Gokarnesa,
to the west of Kamakhya, to the south of Manses a and to the
east of iSarada. Gokarna in Nepal, Kamakhya in Assam, the
Man-sarovar in the Northern Himalayas and the Sarada-
mafha in Kasmira are all well known and have already been
referred to.^ This is the Himalayan prastha and comprised
the northernmost areas of India. This Gokarna is not to be
confused with the town* of this name, having a famous Siva
temple^ in the North Kanara District.

5. Deva^prastha (w. 17-19).

Deva-prastha seems to be placed to the west of Vairaja-
natha (or Gandranatha), and to the south (east? ) of the Amara-
kan^aka, and Kaficipura and Mohanavarta are located in this
prastha which had possibly something to do also with Kamakhya.
Vairajanatha may be connected with the Viraja-ksetra or

I. Gf. ITke Sakti Cult and Tardy ed- Sircar, pp. 147 ff.

a. See above, pp. 93-94 (No?. 3 * 9 ), PI>. 103-04 (Nos. 3^2-33)-

account offiftv-six countries lit

Jajpur ; but Candranatha, the celebrated god in the Chittagong
District in E. Pakistan, seems to be actually indicated. Kancipura
of the verse docs not appear to mean the famous Kancipuram
near Madras. It is better to identify it with the Kahci-pitha
on the Kopai river near Bolpur in the Birbhum District of West
Bengal. Deva-prastha therefore comprised the south-eastern
and eastern regions of India. Bengal and Assam which had
the greatest centres of medieval Tantricism were included in
this prastka .which is possibly called Deva-prastha significantly.

Chapter VI

GAHmA

1 . Gauda as the Name of a City

Cauda (usually written Gaur in English) was the residence
of several dynasties of the IVEusHhi rulers of Bengal for many
centuries from the establishment of Muhammadan rule in the
country about the close of the twelfth century A. ID. The ruins
of the city lie in lat. 24° 52% long. 88° 10' to the north or left
bank of the Canges and south of the modern town of IVEalda^
headquarters of the IDistrict of that name in West Bengal. The
traces of the ruined city with some buildings of Muhammadan
times extend over an immense area now chiefly covered with
jungle. As late as the middle of the sixteenth century, a
European traveller gives the following account of the city of
Cauda : ‘Tt is situated on the banks of the Canges and is said
to be three of our leagues in length and to contain 200,000
inhabitants. On the one side, it has the river for its defence and

on the landward, faces a wall of great height the streets are

thronged with the concourse and traffic of people that they

cannot force their way past a great part of the houses of this

city are stately and well-wrought buildings.’’^ In 1683, another
European traveller who visited the old city in ruins says,
spent 3 hours in seeing the ruins especially of the palace which

has been in my judgement considerably bigger and more

beautiful than the Crand Seignor^s seraglio at Constantinople
or any other palace that I have seen in Europe.’’^

In Muslim times, the city of Caud.^ was also known by the
name EakhnautI no doubt a corruption of Sanskrit Lak^mandvatt.
This name was apparently coined after that of king Laksmana-
sena {circa 1189-1206 A.D. ) of the Sena dynasty, who was ousted
from the western and northern districts of Bengal by the Muham-
madans. The Senas thus appear to have had at least one
of their secondary capitals at Cauda. The city of Ramavati
(called Ramauti by the Muslim writers), named after the Pala

I. See Hohson-Jobson^ s. v. Gout,

GAUDA

119

king Ramapala {circa 1077-1120 A-D.) and the capital or a
secondary capital of the Later Palas of Bengal and Bihar^ was
probably also situated in the vicinity of the present site of G^uda.
Thus Gauda flourished as an important city of Eastern India
for a considerable period of time before the establishment of
Muslim rule, and pre-Muslim rulers of the country often built
new cities named after them in the vicinity of the site of the
old city.

The A^tddhydyi of Panini who flourished in North-Western
India about the fifth century B.G. speaks of a city called Gaud.^
pura. But the rule pure Prdcdm (6. 2. 99) which immediately
precedes the rule arista- gauda-P urve ca (6. 2. 100) suggests that
both the cities, Aristapura and Gaudapura referred to in

the Astadhydyi^ were situated outside the eastern part of India^ in
a region which was more or less fully Aryanised before the
composition of the grammatical work in question. Aristapura
is actually known to be the capital of the iSivi country- in the
Jhang District of West Pakistan. Moreover, the early gram-
marians used the expression ^OrientaF with reference to the
south-eastern part of Aryavarta or Aryan India.® There is
again no reason to believe that the Aryan isation of Western
Bengal (in which the Gnuda country w^as situated) made any
appreciable progress in the age of Panini. ^ Thus the identifi-
cation of Panini Gaudapura with the city of Gauda in Bengal
is highly improbable. The name Gauda is supposed to be deri-
ved from the w’ord guda meaning ^sugar^ The country, of
which Gauda was the chief city, was also known by the same
name possibly because it was famous in ancient times for its
production of sugar. But whether the name of the city was
applied to the country or that of the country to its chief city
cannot be determined in the present state of our knowledge.
The fact however that, in the seventh century A-D-, the capital
of the Gauda country was called Karnasuvarna (modern
Rangamati, about eleven miles to the south of Murshidabad,
headquarters of the District of that name to the south of the
Ganges and Malda) seems to suggest that the city was named

1. Cf. S. Sen, Vdngdld Sdhiijci Itihd^^ \'ol. 1 , 1 st ed-, p. 4.

2. Gf. ^Malaiasekera, Dictionary oj Pah Proper j\ame^^ s. v. SniraUha^

3. See Chapter XIX below.

4. Gf. ‘Spread of Aryanism in Bengal’ in Journal of the Asiatic Society^
Letters, Vol. XVIII, 1932, pp. 171 ff.; also Sircar- Stud. Soc. Adm. Am,
Med. Ind., Voi. I, pp. i ff.

120 GEOGRAPHY OP Al>TCIENT AND MEDIEVAt INDIA

after the country. This fact also indicates that the city of
Gauda was built in its present site to the south of Malda some
time after the seventh century probably in the age of the Palas.
It is interesting to note in this connection that all the jaya-
skandkSzidras {i.e. residences or temporary capitals) of the Pala
kings, including Ramavati-nagara (in the vicinity of the site
of Gauda) were situated on the Ganges. Urged by their pre-
ference for a city on the main course of the river, the Pala kings
may have transferred the headquarters of the Gauda country
from Karnasuvarna to the present site of Gauda in the Malda
District. This seems xo have been done after the main current
of the river had begun to pass through the Padma and the
Bhagirathi (the original Ganges ), on which Karnasuvarna was
situated, had begun to be gradually less important as a water-
course. There is moreover reason to believe that originally
the Ganges flowed by a route through the middle of the present
District of Malda so that the city of Gauda lay on its southern
or right bank.i

About the ancient course of the Ganges, a distinguished
writer says, ‘The tract between Malda and Murshidabad was
the ancient Ganges delta where the river split up into numer-
ous spill channels, the most important of which appear to be
the Sarasvati, the Bhagirathi and the Bhairab. Leaving the
hills of Rajmahal, the Ganges seems to have passed northwards
through the modern Kalindri, and then southwards into the
lower course of the Mahananda, east of the ruins of ancient
Gaur. There was also the south-eastern branch of the Ganges
(modern Padma), the bifurcation being pretty old and shown
in Ptolemy’s map. In the oldest of modern maps, De Barros’
(1550) and Gastaldi’s (1561), Gaur is shown on the west of
the Ganges. Leaving Gaur, the main waters of the Ganges
turned southward and flowed through the channel of the
Bhairab (as Krttivasa, the reputed author who flourished in the
fourteenth century, indicated) and, from at least the twelfth
to the sixteenth century, through the Sarasvati into the Bay,
while the ancient eastern branch of the Ganges is traceable in
the jhils and morasses which extend from Purnea to the sea.
The Ganges thus forsook this course in favour of the channel

1. Cf. Hist. Beng., Dacca University, Vol. I, p. 3.

GAUBA

l2l

through which the Bhagirathi now passes.’^^ The situation
of the Gauda capital Karnasuvarna on its bank seetns to
suggest that the present Bhagirathi carried the main current
of the Ganges as late as the seventh century A.D.

2. Gauda as the Name of a Country.

In modern tirnes^ the name Gauda is often used in Bengali
literature to indicate the whole area inhabited by the Bengali-
speaking people. Originally, however, the Gauda country
seems to have comprised, in a narrow sense, the present District
of Murshidabad together with the southernmost areas of the
Malda District of Bengal. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-tsang
who visited India in the first half of the seventh century A.D.
speaks of Karnasuvarna as the name of both the capital and
the kingdom of king Sasanka who killed king Rajyavardhana
of Thanesar about 605 A*D. The king responsible for the death
of Rajyavardhana is, however, described in the Har^acatita of
Bana, who flourished at the court of Rajyavardhana’s younger
brother and successor Harsa, as Hhe lord of Gauda^ There
IS thus no doubt that Gauda was the usual name of Hinen-tsang^s
kingdom of Karnasuvarna apparently so named by the Chinese
traveller after the name of the capital of that kingdom. Accord-
ing to the Chinese account, the celebrated Buddhist monastery
called Raktamrttika-vihara stood on the suburbs of the city of
Karnasuvarna, and the country of that name was about 730 or
750 miles in circuit. As the monastery in question has been
located at modern Ranga-mati (literally, ^the red earth% the
same as Ss^nskrit Rakta^mrttikd) about eleven miles to the south
of Murshidabad,^ the Karnasuvarna or Gaud^ country has to
be located about the present Murshidabad Districtj, although
the dominions of the Gauda king ISasanka is known to have
actually comprised wide regions of Eastern India.

The above location of Gauda in a narrow sense is remark-
ably supported by a late Puranic tradition. An interpolated
section in some manuscripts of the Bhavisya Purdna locates Gauda-
de:Sa, inhabited by the deity Gaudesa or Gaudesi, in the land

I. Radhakamal Mookerjec, The Changing Face of Be^igaly 193B , pp.
141-42.

a. For epigraphic evidence, see Ep^ Ind., VoL XXXVII, pp.

1 22 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

between the river Padma and Vardhamana, Thus the Gauda
country is placed exactly about the Murshidabad District
bounded in the north by the Padma and in the south by the
Burdwan or Vardhamana District, The same authority regards
Gauda as only one of the seven deias forming Pundra-desa^
viz. (1) Gauda^ (2) Varendra (Malda-Rajshahi-Bogra region
(3) Nivitij (4) Suhma-desa Radha)^ (5) Jharikhanda

(Santal Parganas District) called jdngala apparently meaning
*jungly% (6 ) Varahabhumi (Barabhum in the Purulia
District), and (7) Vardhamana (Burdwan ).i The localities
forming the Gauda country according to the same tradition
are : (1) Navadvipa (in the Nadia District), (2) ^antipura
(in the Nadia District), (3) Maulapattana (Mollai in the
Hooghly District), and (4) Kantakapattana (Katwa in the
Burdwan District). The tradition would thus comprise in
the Gauda country the present Murshidabad District together
with parts of the Nadia, Burdwan and Hooghly Districts of
West Bengal. It may be pointed out in this connection that
the Pundi'a country in this tradition comprised Western and
Northern Bengal together writh some eastern districts of Bihar.
Niviti is said to have included Bardhankot in the Rangpur
District. It is sometimes believed that the same name is found
in the Trikandasesa. But the Trikandaiesa passage Fundi dh
syur-^Varendri Gauda--nwrti seems to mean that the Pundra
country was the same as Varendri lying in the realm {nwrt) of
Gauda. The name Gauda is here used in a wider sense. It is
however not improbable that the Bhavi^ya Purdna tradition is
based on a misunderstanding cf the Trikdndaiesa passage.

The late medieval work entitled Satpancasaddesavibhaga
which is incorporated in the Saktisangama Fantra describes the
Gauda country as lyi^g between the country of Vahga and
Bhuvanesa, Bhubaneswar in the Puri District of Orissa.^
The same work describes Vahga as the land extending from the
sea to the Brahmaputra.^ The sea is apparently the Bay of
Bengal to the south of Vahga; the Brahmaputra placed on the
northern boundary of Vahga seems to indicate that portion of
the river which, bifurcates from the Jamuna. Thus the eastern
half of Bengal has been called Vahga and its western half to-

OAIlTdA

123

gether with parts of Orissa has been designated Gauda in the
work in question. Tliis broad division of the Bengali-speaking
area into two halves, viz. Eastern Bengal called Vahga and
Western Bengal called Gauda, is echoed by some Muslim
writers of the Mughul period, who speak of the country as Gaur-
Bangala or Gaur-wa-Bangala, i.e. Gaud.a-Vanga.^ Vahgala
(Bangal) was originally the name of the Buckergunje region of
the Vahga country ; but later the name came to be applied to
the whole of Vahga or East Bengal and still later to the whole
of the Bengali-speaking area. At present, Gauda, Vahga and
Vahgala are indiscriminately used to indicate the wide area
of East India where the Bengali language is spoken. The major
part of the country lies in West Bengal in the Indian Union
and East Bengal in Pakistan ; but parts of it belong to the
other neighbouring states like Bihar.

We have seen that the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-tsang des-
cribes Karnasuvarna or Gauda as a small tract. It is to be
noticed that he distinguishes the above country from Punya-
vardhana or Pundravardhana in North Bengal, Samatata in
South-East Bengal and Tamralipti in South-West Bengal, In
Indian literature also, Gauda is likewise separated from other
tracts of Bengal. The Kautiliya Arthasdstra (Chs. 32-33)
mentions the textile products of Vahga and Pundra and the
silver of Gauda. Varahamihira’s Brhatsarhhitd (XI V) mentions
side by side Suhma, Samatata, Lauhitya (the Brahmaputra
valley), Gaudaka {i.e, Gauda), Paundra {i.e, Pundravar-
dhana), Tamraliptika {i.e, Tamralipta) and Vardhamana.
There is reason to believe that the northern and south-eastern
parts of Bengal were Aryanised considerably earlier than the
western part of the country including Gauda. The mention
of Gauda in the Arthasdstra, which in its present form has to
be assigned to about the third century A. D., points to the
growing importance of the country in the economic life of
Eastern India. In the fourth century A.D., the Gauda region
became an integral part of the Gupta empire ; but with the
decline of the imperial power of the Guptas, the Gaudas estab-
lished an independent monarchy in the sixth century. The

I. See JXumnmaUc Supplefnent^ No. XXXI\\ referring to the Hurndjun
jVdma of Gulbadan Begam. See also Firishta's history, Nawal Xishore
Press ed,, VoL 1, p. ; \^ol H, p, Firishia also speaks ol Gaur as

the capital of Bangala, I am indebted to Dr. Z.A, Desai for the references.

124

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

importance of Gauda became established in the social and
cultural life of India during the days of these independent
monarchs of Gau<Ja. We have already referred to king iSasahka
of Gauda, who flourished about the first quarter of the seventh
century A.D. and mled over extensive territories in Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa. An earlier king of Karnasuvarna was
Jayanaga. Three other kings of Gauda appear to have been
Dharmaditya, Gopacandra and Samacaradeva who ruled in the
sixth century A.D. Under the vigorous rule of these monarchs,
Gauda appears to have extended its power over the neighbour-
ing territories. One of the above kings of Gauda fought with
the Maukhari king Isanavarman about the middle of the sixth
century and another conquered and annexed Kamarupa to his
empire about the close of that century.^

The Maukhari court-poet, while referring to the struggle
between the Maukharis and the Gaudas, speaks of the latter as
having been compelled to be samudr-asraya^ i.e- a people whose
shelter is the sea, owing to their defeat at the hands of the
Maukhari king.^ This shows that in the sixth century A.D.
the Gaud as had already become famous as a sea-faring people.
That the Gaud^ country about this time produced many sea-
faring merchants is suggested by the discovery of an inscription^
of Mahdndvika {i.e* Captain) Buddhagupta of Raktamrttika
(near the Ga-uda capital) in the Wellesley District of the Malay
Peninsula. The Dubi inscription of Bhaskaravarman of Kama-
rupa seems to refer to the Gauda army as specially strong in
naval warfare.*^

It may be mentioned in this connection that, besides
Gauda in Bengal, some other tracts in different parts of India
were also known by this name. One such Gauda was the
modern Gonda District of Uttar Pradesh, in which the cele-
brated city of Sravasti was situated.® It is, however, possible

1. Gf. Ep. Ind , VoL XXX, pp. 293 ff ; also Sel. Ins.^ 19653 pp, 530-
31 for the annexation of parts of Orissa.

2. Gf. Sircar, Stud Soc, Adm. Anc- Med. Ind,, VoL I, pp. 47-48 .

3. Ghatterjee and Ghakravarti, India and Java, Part II, p. 7.

4. Ep, Ind,, Vol. XXX, pp. 293 ff.

5. Gf. Kurma Purdna, I. 20. 19. For a controversy on this point, see
Historj qf Bengal, Dacca University, Vol. I, p. 579, note.

OAXTDA

125

to think that Gau<;ia as the name of Gonda was a later modi-
fication of the older name of the area in imitation of the famous
land of East India. The name of the Gond people of Central
India was often Sanskritized as Gauda and the land inhabited
by the Gonds came also to be known by this name. Kannad^
Gauda or Gavuda meaning *^a village headman’ has nothing to
do with Bengal. The same is the case with Oriya Cauda
meaning ^a milkman’ and written as Gokuta in some inscriptions-

3. Gauda as the Collective Marne of the Eastern Countries of India

About a century after the establishment of the powerful
kingdom of Gaud^, its name began to be used in a general sense
to indicate the countries of Eastern India. In Dandin’s Kavyd^
dar§a (seventh century) one of the two principal styles of Sans-
krit composition is described as Gauda or prdcya^ i. eastern*

Oandin draws a distinction between the Gauda or eastern
and the Vaidarbha or southern styles. Among the characteris-
tics of the former Is the love of long compounds not only in
prose, in which they were also used by the southerners, but also
in poetry. The easterners also favoured alliteration and
harsh sound effects, recondite etymologizing phraseology and
strength often resulting in bombast and affectation. Jacobi
believed that Sanskrit poetry in the east had developed the
evil effects of old age before the art became current in the
western and southern parts of India, But it should be noticed
that in Bharata’s Mdtyaidstra^ which is a few centuries earlier
than the Kavyddaria^ the qualities which Dandin ascribes to
the Vaidarbha style is assigned to the Kavya style in generaf
Keith is no doubt right when he says, "'‘This is a strong sugges-
tion that at the time of the Mdtyaidstra there had not developed
the characteristics of the Gaud^. style and that they emerged
gradually with the development of poetry at the courts of
princes of Bengal.”^ These ^princes of Bengal’ appear to have
been no other than the kings of Gauda who flourished in the
sixth century and the earlier part of the seventh, to whom
reference has been made above. But the fact that the Gauda
style came to be ascribed to the whole of Eastern India may

I. A History of San.skrit Literature^ p. 6o-

126

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANI> MEBIEVAE INDIA

suggest that poets at other East Indian courts were imitating
those at the Gauda court. This led ultimately to the applica-
tion of the name Gauda to East India generally.

Like the literary style of Eastern India named after Gauda^
the East Indian alphabet was named after the same country.
Biihler says, ‘'^Towards the end of the 1 1th century, theNagari
inscriptions of Eastern India shew such distinct traces of changes
leading up to the modern Bengali writing and these changes
become so numerous in the 12th century that it is possible to
class their alphabets as Proto-Bengali. Only a few among the
Proto-Bengali letters are new local formations. The great
majority occur already in other older scripts, be it in exactly
the same or in similar shape.'"’^ Bendall and Biihler also
noticed the influence of this script on the alphabet used in the
Nepalese manuscripts of the period between the 12th and 15th
centuries.^ Now, in coining the name Proto-Bengali for the
script in question, Biihler seems to have ignor-ed several factors.
In the first place, Hhe eastern variety of the Nagari alphabet’
found in 'the Nagari inscriptions of Eastern India’, out of which
Proto-Bengali developed in the twelfth century, should better
have been distinguished from the 'Nagari’ found in the ins-
criptions discovered in other parts of India by applying a more
specific name to it. Secondly, when, even earlier than the
eleventh century A-D-,^ the same script was used in Bengal,
Bihar, Assam and Orissa and when even now Bengal and Assam
use practically the same alphabet while the Maithili and Oriya
alphabets are nearly the same, the name Proto-Bengali can
hardly be regarded as quite appropriate, in spite of the fact that,
along with its literature, Bengal’s alphabet has come to occupy
a more important position. Thirdly, as early as the first half
of the eleventh century, the same East Indian script was named
after Ga^uda. Al-BirunI, who wrote his work on India about
1030 A.D., speaks of the following alphabets: (1) Siddha-

1. Ind, Ant., VoL XXXIII, App., p. 58.

2. Ibid., p. 60.

3. Ojha {Bharatiya Pidcin Lipimdld, p. 77) has traced letters like e and
kh of the Bengali type in the inscriptions of the time of Narayanapala {circa
854-Q08 A. D.), that is to say, in records belonging to the ninth and tenth
centuries. Biihler himself does not deny such facts.

GAf'DA

127

matrka used in the Kashmir, Banaras and Kanatij regions,
(2) N%ara used in MMava, (3-5) Ardhanagari, Malwari
and Saindhava, used in Sindh, (6-9) Karnata, Aiidhri,
Dravidi and Lari used respectively in the Kannad.^, Andhra,
Dravida and Lata countries, (10) Gaudi used in Purva-desa,
i.e- the eastern country, and (11) Bhaiksuki which was the
writing of the Buddha {i.e. the Buddhists) used in Udunpur
(possibly Uddandapura, i.e. modern Biharsharif in the Patna
District) in Purva-desa.^ This shows that the East Indian
script, called Proto-Bengali by Buhler, was named after Gauda
at least by the beginning of the eleventh century. Many of
the names found in the list of sixty-four alphabets in the
Lalitaznstara (translated into Chinese in 308 A-D. ) are appa-
rently imaginary and doubtful; but the separate mention of
the Ahgalipi, Vahga-lipi, Magadha-lipi, Dravida-lipi, Kanari-
lipi, Daksina-lipi, Apara-Gaud-^di-lipi, etc.,^ seems to suggest
that the tendency towards the growth of special characteristics
in the alphabets of Southern and Eastern India was noticed
even in an earlier age.

What has been said above would show that the name
Gauda was specially applied to the literary style and script of
Eastern India and that Gauda In these cases indicates the East
Indian countries generally* In this connection, attention may
be invited to the language of the caryd songs assigned by linguists
to the period betu’^een the tenth and twelfth centuries A*D-
They no doubt offer the earliest stage of the East Indian dialect
just emerged from the Apabhramsa stage. But there is a great
controversy among scholars as regards the closeness of the
language of the caryds with the different dialects now spoken
in Eastern India such as Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Maithili
and Eastern Hindi. Linguisticians w’hose mother-tongue is any
of the above languages have tried to prove the special affinity
of the caryd dialect with their mother- tongue. Thus H- P.
Sastrl, S. K. Ghatterji, P. C. Bagchi, S. Sen and other Bengali
scholars believe that the caryds are written in old Bengali. K- L.
Barua and other Assamese writers regard the language of the
caryds as old Assamese which they call Kamarupi. J. K. Mishra

1. Sachau, Albermu\s India^ Vol. I, p. 173.

2. G. H. Ojha. op, tti., p. 17, note 3.

128

GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

and others from Mithila take the carya language to be old
Maithili. There are also similar claims on behalf of Oriya and
Eastern Hindi-^ We are however inclined to believe that the
characteristics of the carya laneuage may be easily traced in all
the languages now spoken in Eastern India because it was the
language of Eastern India generally. The authors of the songs
may be attributed to particular areas and their compositions
may exhibit in some cases certain regional peculiarities ; but it
will hardly be correct for the matter of that to regard the lan-
guage of the songs to be any one of those that later developed
in the areas in question especially in view of the fact that the
modern languages of Eastern India have a good deal in common
amongst them. It is very probable that, in the tenth, eleventh
and twelfth centuries A.D., the difference among these lang-
uages was not as remarkable as in modem times and that the
literary language of the carya was easily understood in different
parte of Eastern India. The proper name for the carya language
should therefore be Gaudi or East Indian and not old Bengali,
Assamese, Maithili, Oriya or Eastern Hindi. We may then
have a Gau(Ja language besides a Gaud a style of Sanskrit com-
position and a Gauda alphabet. East Indian linguists of parti-
cular areas may successfully trace affinities of their mother-
tongue with the carya language ; but they should better not
regard it as the origin exclusively of their mother-tongue.^

4. Gauda as the Marne of Aryavarta or Morthem India.

The South Indian Brahmanas are usually divided into five
sections, viz., Dravida (Tamil), KLarnata, Gurjara, Maharastra
and Tailanga. These are collectively called the Pafica-Dravida.^

1. See S. Sen, op. cit , pp. 45 ff. ; K. L Barua, Early History of
Kdmarupi^ pp. 318 fF. ; J- K Mishra, History of Mattkila Literature, p. k ; etc.

2. The Gaudi dialect {pzhhdsd) is recognised in Purusottama’s Fra-
krtdnusdsana (12th century). See Sircar, Gram. Prak. Lang., p 118

3. See Apte, SanskriUEnghsh Dictionary, s. v. Drdcida. The Sabdakal-
padruma, s. v. , quotes a faulty stanza from the Skanda Parana in support of the
list of the five classes of Dravida Brahmanas :

GAXJDA

129

Ati Inscription of 1425 A.D. speaks of four out of the five classes
of Dravida Bi'ahmanas as Kannadiga, Tamila, Telunga and
lala {i,e. Lata -Gurjara) 4 Now these social groups of the
Brahmanas were developed out of the principal linguistic sub-
divisions of the people of South India. On the analogy of the
above divisions, the North Indian Brahmanas were also divided
into five groups under the general name of Gaud.a. The Sabda--
kalpadruma^ s. v. Gauda^ quotes the following verse from the
Skanda Piirana *

?5TT^F il

The five classes of the Gauda or North Indian Brahmanas
were thus the Sarasvata (associated with the Sarasvati valley
in the Eastern Punjab), Kanyakubja, Gauda, Maithila and
Utkala.^ Although this seems to be a rather arbitrary classi-
fication, there is no doubt that the name Gauda has been
applied in this case to North India generally. That the said
classification is not very late is suggested by the mention of the
Pafica-Gaudlya community in an inscription of 926 A.D.®

The application of the name Gauda in the general sense of
Aryavarta or North India can also be traced elsewhere in litera-
ture. There is a tradition regarding king Bhoja {circa 1000-55
A -D. ) of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa recorded in the follow-
ing verse :

1. Soii^h Lidi^m In^a iptiom, \"ol. I, pp, 82“F>4,

2. Wilson 'i» Gloi^a7r nf Judicial and Revenue Terms gives an account of the
Gauda Brahmanas under the entries Brahman and Gaud Under Gaur-Brdh-
man, Wilson says, ‘"The Brahman of the Gaur tribe or caste ; one of the five
Gaurs, but located in the upper provinces tliroughout the Subah of Delhi
to the hills. There are many sub-divisions of these Gaur- Brahmans of
Hindustan, who are apparently unknown in Bengal, as the Adh-Gaur,
Kaithal-Gaur, Gujar-Gaur, Sidh-Gaur, etc., amounting in all to forty-two.’’
He also speaks of the Gaur Kayath said to be settled from Bengal in the
upper provinces by Nasir-ud-din (son of Balban) in the thirteenth century,
Gaur-Rajp'lt numerous in the North-Western Provdnee (U P. ), Gaur-Taga
a tribe of Brahmanical descent in the north-west of India, and

a tribe of Rajp Its settled in the Farrtikhabad District. The Gaur-Tagas claim
that they were originally invited from Bengal by Raja Janamejaya, the
Kaurava king of Hastinapura, for the purpose of exterminating the Taksakas
or snakes.

3. Gf. Ep, Ind., VoL XXXIT, p- 48. See also the Rajatarangini
{circa 1150 A. D.), IV. 468.

130

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

^^rTTFr^r: n

According to this tradition^ Bhoja ruled over both Gauda and
Daksinapatha for a little over 55 years. The real implication
of the verse has so long been misunderstood by scholars. There
is no doubt that it speaks of Bhoja’s lordship over Gauda in the
sense of North India and over Daksinapatha or South India; that
is to say^ Bhoja claimed to have ruled over the whole of India,
including both Northern and Southern India. This was merely
the conventional way of saying that Bhoja was a cakravartifiy ue.
an imperial ruler. The Indian cakravartins were conventionally
represented as the ruler of the ‘whole earth’ which only meant
the cakmvarti-k$etra bounded by the Himalayas and the sea.
Sometimes Aryavarta or North India was conceived as an in-
dependent cakravarti-k^etra for North Indian rulers and South
India bounded by the three seas (the Indian Ocean^ the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea) for the rulers of the Deccan In
the verse quoted above^ Bhoja is represented as the lord of both
th.^ cakravarti-k^etras oi north and the south of India. Like
similar claims of other monarchs, the claim on Bhoja’s behalf
does not mean that the Paramara king actually ruled over any
part of South India or over Gauda in Bengal in the narrow
sense of the term- Here Bhoja merely claims to have been a
cakravartin which means nothing more than an imperial ruler
of any part of India.

1. Bhojaprabandha^ Calcutta ed., p. 3; cf. Ray^ JDHJ^Iy Vol. II,
p. 858.

2. For the conventional cakravarti-ksetras^ see JRASB^ Letters, VoL V,
i 939 > PP* 497 See also above, pp, 15-16-

Chaptbr VII

VANGA AN1> VANGALA

European (mainly Portuguese) writers of the 16th and
17th centuries place a certain City of Bengala near the Meghna
estuary, the joint mouth of the Padma and the Meghna.
This estuary extends over the wide area between the districts
of Buckergunge and Chittagong in East Pakistan. As Bengala
(like the modern name Bengal^ is a foreign corruption of
Vangala^ a celebrated historian has suggested^ that this late
medieval City of Bengala (which he locates near modern Chitta-
gong) was the capital of the ancient Vahgala-desa and ‘gave its
name to the kingdom, or vice versa ^ and, in either case, the old
kingdom of Vahgala must be located in the region round the
city\2 He also suggests that the celebrated Pala and Candra
dynasties of Bengal originally ruled in the Chittagong region.®

The above theories appear to be imwarranted. The City
of Bengala, mentioned by foreign travellers in the late medieval
period,^ seems to have nothing to do with the eaxly medieval
kingdom of Vahgala, which originally denoted a smaller area,
but whose geographical sense gradually expanded so as to in-
clude ultimately the whole of the land of the Bengali-speaking
people.

In this connection, we have to trace the gradual expansion
of the geographical connotation of the name Vahgala. The

1. See R.. G -Xlajumciar in Vhl. pp 227-35.

2. Ibid., p 220 ; cf, p- 232, : ... this original kingdom must be

in this region £of Chittagong and Dianga].”

3. Ibid., p 43-,.

4- On the strength of Ibn Batata’s reference to ‘Sudkav^an (Satgaon'i
and Bengala’ and to ‘Lakhnauti and Bengala’, it has been suggested that in
these two early cases Bengala refers to the city and not to the country. There
can be no doubt however that the names refer to provinces- According to
Muslim authors both R.al (Radha) and Barind (Varendra) formed parts
of Lakhnauti (Raychaudhuri, Stud. Ind. Ant. p. 191). Similarly Bengala
no doubt means the province of South-Eastern Bengal, sometimes also called
Sonargaon after its chief city. Orissa was usually called Jajnagar by Muslim
authors- Such reference to Bihar, Eakhnauti, Bang and Jajnagar
op. cit., p. 233) would, if we follow the said line of argument, suggest the
existence also of a city called Bang. But this was never the case. Some
later Muslim writers refer to East Bengal as Sang and to the whole of Bengal
as Bangui.

132

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

earliest reference to Vafigala has been traced in the Nesari
plates (805 A.D.) of Rastrakuta Govinda III, which speak
of Dharma Dharmapala) as the king of Vahgala.^ This

shows that the name Vahgala was not unknown in earlier
times and that the Palas originally ruled in the tract called by
that name. It is interesting to note that Dharmapala is
apparently called "^lord of Vahga’ in the Sagar Tal inscription
of Bhoja and "'king of Gauda^ in the Sanjan plates of Amogha-
varsa. With the expansion of their territories, the Palas pre-
ferred to style themselves as "lords of Gauda^ This seems to
be the reason why Vahgala did not become popular in the
sense of the Pala empire.

The name is often found in records and works of the period
later than the 10th century A-D. Reference to Vahgala is
found in the Tirumalai inscription (1025 A. D.) ofRajendra-
CO la, 2 which speaks of king Govindacandra as the lord of
Vahgala-desa. The Ablur inscription^ of Kalacurya Vijjala
(1157-67 A.D.) mentions Vahga and Vahgala separately. This
differentiation seems to be supported by a work called Dakarnava
which makes separate mention of Vahgala and Harikela
(Vahga, according to the Abhidhdnacintdmani of the 12th cen-
tury lexicographer Hemacandra),^ and by the Hammiramahd->
kdvya of Nayacandra Suri (15th century ), which mentions Vahga
and Vahgala side by side.^ In the 16th century, however, Abul
Fazl says, ""The original name of Bangui (Vahgala) was
Bang (Vahga). Its former rulers raised mounds measuring
ten yards in height and twenty in breadth, throughout the
province, which were called dl. From this suffix the name {i.e.
Bangal) took its rise and currency/’^ This identification of
Vahga and Vahgala has to be reconciled with the evidence
referring to them as two different countries.

The Raghuvatfisa reference to the defeat of the Vahga people
in the land watered by the lower streams of the Ganges'^ and

1. Letters, VoL XXII, 1956, pp. 133-34*

2. Ep, Jnd,, Vol IX. p. 229 ff.

3. Ibid.^ Vol. V, p. 257.

4. Raychaudhuri, op. cit.^ p. 189.

5. IHd, op, cit., p. 237.

6. Jarrett, *Am-i~Akbari, trans., Vol. II, p. 120.

■ 7- ^ I

{Raghuvamsa, IV. 36)

VANOA AND VANGAI-A.

1^3

cpi^raphic references to Vanga comprising the Vikrampnr region
of Dacca and Faridpnri and to the JVavya region of Vahga
very probably in the Faridpur and Bnckergnnge Districts,^ leave
hardly any doubt that Vahga certainly included at least parts
of the present Dacca^ Faridpur and Buckergunge Districts. In
the lower part of this region very high roads or earthen em-
bankments are constructed even today in order to prevent the
tide of floods and to facilitate communications during the rainy
season. It may therefore be suggested that the southern part
of old Vahga thus at first came to be known as Vahgala. It is
interesting to note that this view is supported by other evidences.

As said above, the Tirumalai inscription refers to
Govindacandra as the lord of Vahgala-dcsa. The inscriptions
of the Gandra dynasty of East Bengal, to which Govindacandra
belonged, however, say that Trailokyacandra, the first king of
the family, became lord of Gandra-dvipa and flourished as the
mainstay of the fortune (i.^. as an ally) of the king of Hari-
kela (Vahga accox'ding to Hemacandra’^s Abhidkdnacintamani).^
Thus the Gandra kingdom is called Gandia-dvipa according to
one evidence and Vahgala-desa according to another- Gandra-
dvipa and Vahgala-desa thus appear to be more or less identical.
As Gandra-dvipa is no other than the celebrated Bakla-Candra-
dvip parts of the Buckergunge District and the adjoining

region), the Buckergunge area was apparently included in
V ahgala-desa.

Mailinatha explains as Gafi^idjah \rotasdm prazdhdndmi^

anfaiesu dvlpesui cf- ^flt'-dntaresu^ “in the intervals of singing\ i d<;pta’-saltl-mduit

“in the interval of weeping’, na mrndla-suiram racitatn sian^dniarey “ m the

space between the breasts%etc. See below, Chs, X and XI.

1. Gf. Vaiige Vihamapura-bhdge, etc. {Ins. Vol. Ill, p. 125).

2. Gf- Vangt JSfdiye Rdmasiddht'-pdtakey etc . JVdzje VtnayaUlaka-gidme
purie samudrah simd^ etc nbid , p. 146; Jsdiya means a region accessible by
boats. That this region was then not far from the sea (samudra ), t e. the
estuary, is also clear. The word means apparently the same thing as Bengali
hhdti^ “with the tide, the region towards the sea’ ifrom Ihdid, floods of the
tide running towards the sea . In the Muslim period, the district called Bhati
sometimes indicated the coastal strip between the estuaries of the Hooghly
and the Meghna or, according to some, the valleys of the Brahmaputra and
Meghna and their tributaries. The late work called Sakttsangama Tantra
places Vanga~desa between the ratndkaia (sea; and the Brahmaputra ^'above,
p. 91), Gf. j^.K. Bhatt Com. PoL, 322-

3- lad. Cult.^ VoL VII, p. 41 1. Accoiding to KLesava's Kalpadrukosay
Harikela or Harikeli was the name of the Sylliet (Srihatta) region. Cf.

134

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAe" INDIA

The suggestion is further supported by the identification of
Vangalava^a-bhu in the Ramasiddhi-pataka of the Ndvya region
ofVanga, mentioned in the Sahitya Parisad plate^ ofVi^varupa-
sena, with modern Bangroda in the region of Rajnsiddhi under
the Gaurnadi Police Station of the Buckergunge District.
Vangala thus appears to have been popularly mentioned as a
separate political unit, after the Gandras had established a
kingdom in Vangala, the southern part ofVahga. Sricandra,
son of Trailokyacandra, ruled over the Dacca, Faridpur and
Sylhet Districts, and apparently also over the Tipperah
District. Thus Vahga proper was now included in the new
kingdom of Vangala. As a result of this, the name Vangala
could be optionally used in an expanded sense to indicate a
large area in East Bengal that formed part of the kingdom of
Sricandra and his successors. By this time, Vahga and Vangala
apparently signified more or less the same territory.

Early Muslim authors refer to the Muhammadan kingdom
of Bengal first as Lakhnauti or Gaur, as their first settlement
did not include East Bengal. The kingdom of East Bengal was
sometimes referred to as Bang, Bangal or Sonargaon ; and
later sometimes the whole of Bengal was mentioned as Gaur-
BangaL^ Satgaon was often recognised as a separate political
unit. But, as early as the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq Shah
(1320-25 A.D.), some Muslim authors are known to speak of
Bangal in a wide sense so as to include Lakhnauti, Sonargaon
and Satgaon.^ In the 16th century, the name Bangal loosely
indicated a wider area. It may or may not have geographi-
cally included the Chittagong region which was included in
the Mughul Subah of Bangal only during the reign of
Aurangzib in the 1 7th century. There is no proof at all

This name came to be applied to Vanga apparently due to the temporary
annexation of Vanga to the Harikela kingdom. Gf. Ep. Jnd,^ VoL XXVIII,
PP- 338-39-

1. N. G. Majumdar, Ins. Beng.^ VoL III, pp. 840 ff.

2. Cf. Hum. Suppl.y No. XXXIV, pp. 200-01. The Saktisangama
Tantra divides Bengal into two halves, viz. Vanga and Gauda (lying between
Vahga-desa and Bhuvanesa or Bhubaneswar). See above, pp. 91, 105, 123
note- The Manasdldsa (1.2. 175) speaks of Gau^a- Vangala.

3. Raychaudhuri, op. p. igi ; Raverty, Tabaqdt~i~Ndsiri, p. 590 n.

VANGA ang^vakgAia 135

that the Chittagong area formed part of the old kingdom of the
Gandras and the Palas. It must be noted that not a single in-
scription of those dynasties has so far been discovered in the
Chittagong District. i

We now come to the City of Bengala mentioned by the
European (mainly Portuguese) writers of the 16th and 17th
centuries A.D. Duarte de Barbosa, Barthema (1510 A- D-),
Ovington (1639 A-D. ) and several other writers refer to the
city. Some authorities identify the city with modem Chittagong
or locate it near about that place. It is shown in a map drawn
by Gastaldi in 1651 and in another in the Traoels of Cornelius
le Bruyan (published in 1701). In these maps and works as
well as in those of Blaev, Sausson, Purchas and others, the City
of Bengala is indicated in the Chittagong region.^ But Barbosa,
one of the earliest Portuguese writers on Indian geography.

Muslim authors popularised the use of Ban^dl in preference to other names to
denote the whole ol Bengal. A Nepal inscription of 1346 A.D. refeis to the
army of Suljan Shamsuddin Ilyas as Vangdla-^bahula hala {JBORS^ Voi.
XXil, p 81; IHQ^y op. cit., p. 227).

I. The Arab merchant Sulaiman (831 A. D.; refers to the pow'erful
kingdom of Rahma which has been identified with the kingdom of the Palas.
See Section 11 below. But the identification of Rahma, Rahmi and Ruhmi
of the Arabs with Ramu, a few miles east of Cox's Bazar {IHCi., op.
pp. 232-34; IS wrong. Apart from the fact that there is absolutely no proof
ot Pala occupation of Ramu, it seems unconvincing that the Bihar-Bengal
empire of die Palas (even li it included Ramu;, with the emperors often
residing at jajaikandhdid/as m Bihar, would be named after Ramu which
then probably formed a part of Arakan. Marco Polo who placed Bangala
’tolerably close to India’ and under the rule of the king of Mien (Burma),
and Fakir Muhammad who placed Bangal to the east of Bhati appear to
have made some confusion. "i‘he Bengali ballad called Mdmkcandra'-rdjdr Gdn^
which says Bhdti kaite diLa Vdngdl lambd lambd dddi^ ‘the Vangalas (people of
Vangala proper) with their long beards came from Bhati (the southern
country/, proves that the people of East Bengal, who were responsible for
the original composition of the ballad, knew Vangala to be identical with
Bhati (see G.G. Banerji, Cati dlmangala--bodhini,\ ol. II, p. 765)* Mukundarama
(ibth century) m his Candlmangala (G.U. ed., p- 655; speaks of the Vangals
as good sailors. As the Chittagong people are reputed sailors, it may be
suggested that Mukundarama identifies the land of the Vangals with
Chittagong. But Mukundarama was a man of West Bengal and to the
people of ills part of the country, the inhabitants of any District of East
Bengal are Vangals even today. Moreover, the passages in question are
certainly interpolated m the Candlmangala. The Mdnikcanara^rdjdr Gdn^ an
East Bengal production, is therefore more important in this connection.
Therein we see that the people of Bhati were known even to the people of
East Bengal as Vangals, i. e. inhabitants of VangMa.

a. Raychaudhuri, op. cit.^ p, 189; IHQ,^ op. ciL, p, aagn#

136

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

says that the Bay of Bengal is ‘a gulf wliich enters towards the
north and at its inner extremity there is a great city inhabited by
Moors (Muhammadans), which is called Bengala, with a very
good harbour.’^ The expression ‘at the inner extremity’ may
point to a locality far to the north of Chittagong, and Moreland
suggests that the Portguese meant Sonargaon by the City of
Bengala.^ But the city apparently belonged to what the Portu-
guese called the Porto Grande —Portus Mangnus —Great Port,
and we have to determine the location of the latter.

Portuguese writers, when they speak of a voyage to Bengal,
usually refer to the Great Port as well as the Porto Pequeno-=r
Portus Parvus —Little Port. Portguese porto is usually under-
stood in the sense of English Port, and the Little Port is identified
with Hooghly or Satgaon while the Great Port is located near
Chittagong. Moreland has however shown that ‘the word
porto in the mouth of the sea-faring Portuguese at the period
referred primarily to a gap in the coast line and not, as landsmen
are apt to assume, a town on the sea-shore; in other words,
porto might signify a gulf or estuary which might contain several
sea ports.’-^ He has pointed out that sometimes the Little Port
indicated the Hooghly estuary, and the Great Port meant the
Meghna estuary and included both Chittagong and Sripur
(in the Dacca District). The location of the Great Port there-
fore does not help us materially in locating the City of Bengala.

1, IHQ,, op. cit., pp. 229-30.

2, Didia at the Death of Akbar^ p. 309.

3, Father F. Fernandus. the Jesuit missionary who was
sent to Bengal in 1598^ speaks of the danger when his ship lan aground m the
irortus Parvus; but it was afloat and, alter sailing for eight days W'lthin the
Portus, it reached the Portuguese station of Plooghiy. By Fotru 6 Fa'itus theie-
fore Fernandus meant the Hooghly river and not any port He next w’tnt to
the Portus Magnus and first reached Sripur w^hich he describes as a station in
the Portus Magnus, Sripur was an important port on the Padma about 18
miles from Sonaragaon, the eastern capital of Bengal. The Father then
arrived at Chittagong which was also a station belonging to the Portus Mag-
nus. According to Fernandus therefore the Great Port extended from the
mouth of the Karnaphuli river to the immediate neighbourhood of Dacca.
By the -wovd porto some writers however actually meant a port; Fitch, e.
identifies Porto Pequeno with Satgaon, According to Moreland, the
change in the meaning may be attributed to the fact that 'the Portuguese
did not to any great extent trade directly with Sripur ; their communi-
cations were with either Hooghly or Chittagong, that is, with only one
Station in each Porto^ and, in these circumstances, the transfer of the name
from the Porto to the Station might easily take place, just as the hlersty has
become a synonym for LiverpooF {op, cit,^ p. 309).

VANGA ANB VAXGAI-A.

137

The chief points of interest in this problem are two. Firstly,
there is not a single reference to this City of Bengala, so famous to
the Portuguese, in the whole range of medieval Bengali litera-
ture, not even in the Bengali history of the Tripura royal family
which often mentions Chittagong. The Bengalis therefore did
not know any place of that name, or knew it by a different name,
i.e. a name of their own. Secondly, while some European
writers like Reimell could not trace the city or its site, others
denied the very existence of the city called Bengala. In 1689,
Ovington remarked, “A late French geographer (Baudrand)
has put Bengala into his Catalogue of imaginary cities, and such
as have no real existence in the world.”i It therefore seems quite
clear that even Europeans other than the Portuguese sometimes
considered the name of the City of Bengala as a misnomer and
had no memory of it after the collapse of the Portuguese power
in Bengal. The City of Bengala thus appears to be a name
given by the Portuguese to a city which was usually known to
others by its Bengali name. As however there is absolutely no
proof (in the Bengali literature and Bengal records of any
period) of the existence of any city called Vahgala in the south-
eastern part of Bengal, the Portuguese name -City of Bengala’
seems to have originally indicated the city par excellence [i.e. the
chief city ) of the country of Vahgala, i.e. East Bengal. Names
like Andhrapura, Magadhapura or Alagadhapura, etc., are
known to have been alternative names of tlie chief cities derived
from the names of countries, and we have seen that the south-
eastern, north-western and south-western provinces of Bengal
were also known to the Muslim writers as Sonargaon (Vahgala),
Lakhnauti (Gauda) and Satgaon (Radha) respectively after
the chief cities of those provinces. A^ the chief city of East
Bengal lay not far from the Meghna estuary,- it might have
been called the City of Bengala by the Portuguese. But appa-

1. Bjngal Past and Present^ VoL XIII, p. 2G2 ; 7//. czt.^ p. 23f>n.

2. Sonargaon was the capital of East Bengal during early Alusiim
days. Dacca was made the capital of the Bengal Subah eail> in the 17th
century. The remark of Purchas that 'Gauro (Gaur or Lakhnauti the seat
i^oyal, and Bengala are fair cities’ {IHQ^ op, cit, p. 230 ; apparently refers to
the fact that Bengala was the chief city of East Bengal and was looked upon
as a secondary capital of Bengal.

138

GKOGRAPHV OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL IMDIA

rently that name was used by foreigners (chiefly Portuguese ),
and the Bengalis continued to use the local or Bengali name.
That is why the name could not be traced after the Portuguese
collapse in Bengal.^

It must however be admitted that some authorities locate
the City of Bengala near about Chittagong.^ It seems that
originally the chief city of East Bengal was known to the Portu-
guese as the City of Bengala ; but after the Portuguese port in
the Chittagong region had become the most flourishing centre
of trade in Bengal, they began to call it the City of Bengala.
This again seems to have been done when Sonargaon passed
out of the picture due to the transference of the provincial capital
first to Rajmahal and then to Dacca. The fact that Portu-
guese sailors came by sea and first reached this flourishing port
after days of hardship in the sea may also have emphasized
its importance to them as the city par excellence of the country of
Bengal.

Whatever, however^ the location of the City of Bengala
may be, there is no doubt that it had nothing to do with the
old country of Vahgala known to have been the kingdom of
the Gandra kings of East Bengal. ^

There has been some discussion on the derivation of the

I. Quite difTerent is the case with Meghna (pronounced Magna in
East Bengal, with the first vowel sounding like a in man) apparently derived
from the l^atin word meaning ‘great’, which has supplantea the older name
of the river.

a. It has been pointed out that Ortelius places Bengala in the same
place where Hommanus places Chatigam or Chittagong, "iule relers to a
chart of 174^-^ and concludes that Chittagong is probably identical with the
City of Bengala. Campos also identifies Chittagong and Bengala. Ovington
places Bengala to the south of Chittagong, in Blaev’s map and bausson’s
chart, the city is located on the southern bank of the Kariiaphuli near about
the place where Broucke places Dianga. This location is supported by
Vignorla’s map of 1 683 . But m an old map m Thevenot, the city is placed
above Xatigan or Chittagong. Hosten and Majumdar think that 1 j langa,
opposite Chittagong, represents the site of Bengala. it is also suggested that
originally both Dianga and Chittagong were iiicluded in the city, Hosten
identities Dianga with a place now called Bandar on the left bank and near
the mouth of me Karnaphuli river. He also takes Dianga to have been the
Porto Grande- Blochman identifies Dianga with Dakhin-danga or Brahmai.-
danga both on the Sangu river to the south of Chittagong op, ctt,s

pp. 231-32 and notes). Blochman may be right, as the foreign name seems
to correspond to the Bengah word adngd which is pionouncea in East Bengal
as dangd, with the first vowel sotmding like the English a in man.

3. See also S. H. Hodivala in Mvm. SupL, No. XXXI V {JASB)^ pp.
199-211. Gt'. Ind. CiUU^ Vol VII, pp. 407-08.

VANGA AKD VANGaLA

139

name Bengal.^ But the conclusions are not satisfactory. Since
the emergence of modern Hindi from its Apabhramsa stage,
the speakers of Hindi and other languages have been calling
the Bengali-speaking area by the name Vangdl (without the final
a in the last consonant), which has been transliterated by the
English in their script as BengaU The Muslims first came to
India when the final a in the last consonant of Sanskritic words
in North Indian dialects was pronounced. The earlier pronun-
ciation of Vangdl^ as is well known, was Van gala which was
naturally transliterated by the Muslims in their script as
Bangdlah (pronouncing Barigdla)^ This Muslim pronunciation
of the name is directly responsible for the name Ban gala now
applied by the Bengalis to their country. The first d in the
name is comparable to the first d in Bengali words like hdjdr
(thousand) derived from Persian hazdr^ The change of a into
d is due to the fact that a pronounced outside East India re-
sembles d as pronounced by the Bengalis. The last d in the
name is again comparable to Bengali words like khdnd derived
from khdnahJ^ The people of Bengal is known elsewhere in
India as Vangdli which the English transliterated as Bengali or
Bengalee and which the Bengalis have made Bdngdli in their
language. This word is also influenced by such Muslim words
as Kdbulu^ It is interesting to note in this connection that,
according to a general ethnological principle, the specific name
of a tribe often originates among neighbouring tribes and is
eventually adopted by the tribe to which it is applied.

1. See N. N. Das Gupta in IHQ^, \"ol. XXII, pp. 277“B5-

2. Gf. also bandah ( (slave; = Bengali bdndd, khajdnah (revenue) =

Bengali khdjdnd^ etc. Just as the word orginally spelt and pronounced in
Bengali as khdjdnd has now been modified to khdtnd (with the elision of the
central d), the earlier Bengali spelling and pronounciation of the name
Bdngdid have now given way to the modified form Bdngid (sometimes softe-
ned into Bdnld). 'i"hat, during Muslim rule, the Bengalis adopted the
Muslim pronunciation of the name of their country is probably indicated by
the fact that today Bengalis of any education speak, m their common
speech, usually of the Knglish India^ Bengal and Calcutta in preference res-
pectively to the names Bhdratavar^a, Bdngdld (or Bdngid or Bdnla) and
Kalikdtd. Gf. also the popularity of the Anglicised surnames Banerji,
Mukherji, etc. The introduction of a large number of Persian and Arabic
words in the vocabulary during Muslim rule has further lo be compared
with the later adoption of numerous English words during the British period.

3 . Gf. the yd-yi nishatx in Persian and the corresponding Arabic suffix to
form relatives (D.G. Phillott, Higher Persian Grarrmiar^ pp. 400 and 714-17}.

140 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

To Sum up the discussion^ the Gandra kings of South-East
Bengal are sometimes represented as lords of Candra-dvipa
(Bakla-Gandradvip in the -Buckergunge region ) and sometimes
as lords of Vahgala-desa. This fact points to the location of
Vahgala in its original geographical sense in the coastal region
of Southern Bengal. The connotation of the name began to
expand with the expansion of the Gandra kingdom of Vahgala
Over wide areas of South-East Bengal. The Nesari plates of
805 A.D. suggest that the name Vahgala (apparently indicating
the original territory of the Palas in the Buckergunge region)
was known even in earlier times, though it does not
appear to have been popular in the sense of the eastern
part or the whole of Bengal before the rise of the Gandras.
The name was popularised in the sense first of East
Bengal, and then in that of the whole of Bengal, by the
Muslims. The location of Vahgala proper in the Bucker-
gunge region near the Bay of Bengal, that is to say, in the
southern part of the ancient Vahga country, seems to be sup-
ported by Abul FazBs identification of Vahga and Vahgala
and his derivation of the latter name from Vanga~{-dl (Sanskrit
dli) on the grounds that ‘its former rulers raised mounds
measuring ten yards in height and twenty in breadth through-
out the province, which were called dl/ Although the deriva-
tion may be wrong and Vangdla may have sprung from Vanga-^
the Prakrit suffix ala in the sense of a notable district belonging
to Vahga,^ we have seen that the interesting mention of the
earthem mounds, primarily meant for keeping off the encroach-
ment of sea-water from the corn-fields, refers to a condition
prevailing in the Buckergunge region of the coastal area of
Bengal even to-day. The name Vangala is very rarely found
in records earlier than the rise of the Gandras in the tenth
century A.D. The mention of the name in the Goharwa ins-
cription of Karna (1041-71 A.D.) in the description of the
exploits of his predecessor Laksmanaraja proves its importance
in the eleventh century. Of course Laksmanaraja, who is
represented in the Goharwa inscription as having defeated the
Vangala country or people, ruled about the middle of the
tenth century when the Gandra power had already been estab-
lished in Vangala.

I, Gf. Sircar, Grammar of the Prakrit Language ^ p. 33.

VAlsrGA ANB VANGII.A

141

As we have seen, the most important point in regard to the
supposed existence of a 'city of Bengala’ is that no such name of a
great city is found in any of the numerous works of medieval
Bengali literature- This question, usually ignored, has to be
ansvrered- Our answer to this question fully tallies with that of
Hodivala who reached the same conclusion after throughly ran-
sacking the available Muslim sources. In an attempt to locate
the Mughul mint-town of Bangala in Akbar’s empire, he says,
'Briefly, there would appear to be fairly good grounds for thinking
tYrSit Bangala was not the real or fixed name of any town or city,
but an alternative or honorific designation by which the capital
of the province at the time being was known. Thus the Bangala of
Mun’Im Khan^s time might have been Gaur, and it is not
impossible that during the subsequent twenty years the name
was sometimes applied to Tanda. The Bangala of the coins of
the 39th and following years of Akbar’s reign would, by parity
of reasoning, be Akbamagar.^’^-

Dharmapala (c. 770-810 A-D- )? the second emperor of
the Pala dynasty, was one of the mightiest Indian monarchs of
his time. It is well known that the two other great Indian
powers in Dharmapala’s age were the Rastrakutas of the Deccan
and the Gurjara-Pratiharas who originally ruled over the
Rajasthan region but transferred their capital to Kanauj before
833 A.D. and that Dharmapala had to fight with both of
them. Dharmapala consolidated Pala hold on Bengal and
Bihar and extended his political influence over Uttar Pradesh for
a short time. His relations with Orissa are unknown, although
his son and successor, Devapala (c. 810-50 A.D.), is vaguely
credited with having made the Utkala-kula (i. e. the people

I. See Hodivala, op. cit.^ p. 21 1. It will be seen that the mint*town of
Bangala, whence Akbar’s coins were issued, could not have been situated in
the Chittagong region (where the "^city of Bengala’ is usually located \ as
that area lay outside the Mughul empire during Akbar's rule. See also A.
G^rtesao m Letters, \’'oL XI, pp. 10-14; cf. A.B.M. Habibullah,

pp. 33 B*. See Sircar, Siud. Ind. Coins ^ pp. 3^5

142

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

or royal family of IJtkala or Orissa) utkzHtaJ^ The meaning
of the word utkUita is ^unfastened’ and it may be that Devapala
claimed to have saved the people or royal family of Orissa from
foreign aggression. There is another statement in a Pala
record that the king of TJtkala fled from his capital at the
approach of Jayapala, the general and cousin of Devapala.®
The account of India written by the Arab merchant
Sulaiman in 851 A.D. (completed by Abu Zayd in 916 A,D) ,
well known from the translation of parts of Sulaiman’s work in
the History of India as told by its own Historians^ VoL by Elliot
and Dowson, speaks of three important and rival Indian
powers, viz. Juzr, Balhara and Ruhmi.^ As will be seen
below, information about these three important powers is
also found in the works of some other early Arabic writers as
well as in the Persian work Hudud-al- Alam written in 982 A-D.,
although each of the three names have variants. The identi-
fication of Juzr and Balhara respectively with Sanskrit Gurjara
(i.e. the Gurjara-Pratihara king) and Vallabharaja (i.e. the
Rastrakuta king) is quite obvious, while most scholars believe
that the third name refers to the Pala king of Eastern India. ^
But the significance of Sulaiman’ s Ruhmi could not be deter-
mined .

Many writers have located the kingdom of Ruhmi in
Bengal ; but a few of them placed it outside. Thus Yule had
once identified Ruhmi with Rahmaniya or Pegu, though he
later preferred Ramu near Cox’s Bazar in the Chittagong District,
now in East Pakistan.® Some other authors associated the
place with Mrohaung or Myohaung in the Akyab District of
Burma, which was one of the old capitals of Arakan.® But
Hodivala has shown that these suggestions are unconvincing.^
Moreover, as will also be shown by us below, the said kingdom
bordered on the one hand the empire of the Balhara or the

1. GC Gaudalekhamdldf p. 74, verse 13.

2. Ibid.^ p. 585 verse, 6.

3. Elliot and Dowson, op. cit.^ p. 5.

4. See IHCl, VoL XVI, p. 232.

5- Cathey and the Wey 'Thither^ ed. Cordier, VoL I, p. 243; 'Travels
of Marco Polo^ trans*, VoL II, p. 100.

6. Gf- Hodivala, Studies in Indo-Mmlim History ^ P* 4*

7 . JLdOC . ctt»

VAnGA and VAnGAIA.

143

Rastrakuta ruler of the Deccan and> on the other, it abutted
on the kingdom of Kamarupa or Assam* In the age in question^
this kingdom could have only indicated the empire of the Palas
of Eastern India.

Hodivala draws out attention to Yule’s estimate of
Sulaiman’s account of the Indian kingdoms as medley of
disjointed notes put together at random’, the information being
^extremely vague’. According to Yule, Sulaiman’s knowledge
of India was ‘^slight and inaccurate and he had no distinct con-
ception of the magnitude of the country-’^ On Sulaiman,
Hodivala himself says, does not appear to have personally

known anything of Bengal and he is repeating only what he
had heard or read in some previous author. This is clear from
the expressions, Tt is said’ and Tt is stated’, which he prefixes

to his averments. ”2

On the strength of Mas’udi’s statement that ‘Rahma (i.e.
Ruhml) is the title for their kings and generally, at the same
time, their name’, Hodivala comes to the following conclusion:
*Rahma which is said by Mas’udi to have been the title or
name of the king as well as of his kingdom, is to be explained
by the fact that the kingdom was described in the original
writing, to which Sulaiman and Mas’udi were indebted for
their knowledge, as mulk al Darhmi. This phrase is equivocal
and may mean "the kingdom of Dharma’ and also "the king
Dharma’. The dal was subsequently supposed to be a re and
the re a waw. The phrase was thus misread as mulk ahRuhmt

or al’^Ruhmt^ "kingdom of Ruhmi’ It seems almost certain

that he (Sulaiman) found the name of the kingdom or the king
only in some manuscript and read it wrongly as Al-Ruhmi instead
of aUDharml or aUDharmaJ*''^ This Dharma is of course the
shortened form of the name of the Pala king Dharmapala as
sometimes found in inscriptions^

There can be no doubt that Hodivala’s suggestion on the
subject is the most ingenious and constructive.® Unfortunately,

1, Cathay^ etc., op. cit.^ intro., p. ciii.

2. Op. cit., p. 5.

3 * Loc.

4. See Ep. Ind., VoL XVIII, p. 245, verse 23; Vol. XXXIV, p. 131,
verse 23.

5. There arc many such brilliant suggestions in Hodivala’s works.
Unfortunately, some of them have been appropriated by others without

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEBIEVAE INDIA

Ilf! fio(!S not appear to have known that there are variants of thj
name Ruhmi in the works of the Arabic writers, such as Dahrm
etc. 5 which go unquestionably in favour of his Suggestion. R. G
IMajumdar’s comment that Hodivala’s opinion regarding Rahrrii
heinir R mistake for Dharma ^is improbable as the term continuec
in use long after Dharmapala’s death’^ ignores the use of da
instead of as the first letter of the name In many manuscripts
and the nature of Sulaiman^s work as indicated above. Indeed
the same is the case with the works of later Arabic authors whe
gathered most of their information from older sources.

V* Minorsky has shown that the name of the rival of botf
the Gurjara-Pratihara and Rastrakuta kings, whose empire
comprised wide areas on the east coast of India, is written
variously in the manuscripts as Rhmi (i.e. Rakmt^ Rahma,
Rahmay^ Ruhmi^ etc.}, Ruhmi^ Dhm {i.e, Daham^ Dahum^ Dham^
etc.), Dhmi (i.e, Dahmt^ Dahmd^ Dahmay^ Dahmd^ Dhamd^ etc.),
Ohm and S* M. H. Nainar points to the variants as

Dahmd^ Damn% Dumi and Rahmd,^ There are also similar
variants of the names Gurjara and Vallabhardja in the manus-
cripts.

This East Indian king ‘‘is at war with the Balhara
( Vallabharaja ) as he is with the king of Jurz (Gurjara)*
(Sulalman).^ ‘On one side, the country of the Balhara called
Kamkar {sic — Kuntala or Karnata) is exposed to the inroads
of the king of Jurz ; on another side, it Is exposed to the attacks
of Rahma* (Idrisi).^ The East Indian kingdom, which was

proper acknowledgment. Thus his suggestion that the names of Yadava
R.aniacandra s sons weie not Sankaradeva and Bhimadeva but Sitighanadeva
and Bhillamadeva {op, ext., pp. 37'-^-73) are adopted in The Delhi Sultanate.
ed AIaJu.mdai.5 pp* 4-^''4D^ without giving him the credit due to him.

1. ///Q,, Voi. XVI, p. 232, note 38.

^ Regions of the World, A Persian Geography, 372

.i./Tf. = 982 A.D., pp. 236-37, j .ji

and It.'- Kmwledge of Southern India, pp. 156-57, 160

4- Elliot and Dowson, op. cit., p. 5; Hodivala, op. cit., p. 5.

5. Nainar, op. cit., p. 160. Mas’udi once speaks of Ba’urah, the king
of Qannawj (i. e. Kanauj'i, who is no doubt the Gurjara-Pratihara king
usually mentioned by the Arab writers as Gurjara (Juzr, etc.). Mas'udi’s
description of the ruler proves the identification beyond doubt. “He is an
enemy of the Balhara, the king of Hind. The king of Qannawj has four armies
corresponding with the four cardinal winds and each army is composed of

VANGA AND VANGAlA

145

famous for its gold, silver, aloes, yak- tails, elephants, extreme-
ly fine muslins, spotted rhinoceroses and cowrie-coins, lay
in the immediate neighbourhood of the dominions ofVallabha
raja and Gurjara. It comprised both land and sea {Mas*udf,
943 A.D.) . Its king, though not of a noble extraction, was a
powerful monarch, his army containing SOjfXK) elephants and

10.000 to 15,000 fullers and washermen. Ya’qubi (891 A.D.)»
who locates the kingdom of Balhara after his, considers him
the most important king ruling over a very extensive gold-
producing country lying on the sea. Ibn Khurdadblh, the
first draft of whose work was prepared in 846 A. I>- and the
second draft in 885 A. I>., says, ^*After [the Ballahra]

[comes] the king Jurz after him Ghaba ; after him Rhmi

or Dhmi, between whose [possessions] and those of the other
[kings] is a distance of a year and he is said to possess

50.000 elephants as well as cotton and velvet garments and
Indian aloes. Then after him [comes] the king of Qamrun
(i.e. Kaxnarupa or Assam) whose kingdom adjoins China.^’^

Idrisi (1 154 A.D- ) says, * Among the kings of India, there
are the Balhara (Vallabharaja), Jaba, Tafar, al-Hazr (i. e.
Gurjara), Ghana (or Ghaba) and Qamrun (i.e. Kamarupa).
These names are only taken by the prince who reigns over the
province or the country ; no other has the right to assume
them; but whoever reigns takes the name . ”2 This statement
exhibits considerable confusion in the author’s mind as
well as in his sources. Vallabharaja was the hereditary title of
the Rastrakuta monarchs who inherited it from their prede-
cessors, the Calukyas of Badami.® The Arabs were familiar

seven hundred thousand men, also said as nine hundred thousand men.
The army of the north has to oppose the king of Multan and his allies ;
the army of the south has to defend the country against the
Balhara, the king of Mankir ; and in the same manner arc the
other armies engaged against the other neighbouring powers.” Cf. Nainar,
op. pp- 159-60. The name Bd^urah is written also as Bat Utah and Bruzah.
According to Hodivala, the correct reading of the name is Bozah, Bozoh
or Bodzah {op, cit., p. 25). There is thus little doubt that the name is
really Bhoja, the Gurjara- Pratihara monarch of Kanauj, who ruled in
c. 836-885 A.D.

r. For these details, see Minorsky, op. pp. 1237-38; cf. Hodivala,
op. cit.j pp. 4 ff. ; Nainar, op. cit.y p. 157.

2. Nainar, op. p. 156.

3. The original title was Sriprthivivallabha which was shortened as
Srlvallabha or Prtkwivailabha and also merely as Vallabha. Both the Calukya
kings of Badami and the Rastrakuta monarchs were popularly known as
Vallabha or ‘the Vallabha

146 GEOGKAPHV of ancient and medieval INDIA

with the Rastrakut^s and wTongly supposed that the other
names also indicated hereditary titles as in the case of the
Rastrakiita kings. Gurjara (Gurjara-Prattkdra) was a dynastic
or clan name and not a hereditary title like Vallabhardja^ so
that it was never a title assumed by a ruler. Still at least the
Gurjara-Pratihara king could have been called ^the Gurjara’,
even though the Imperial Gurjara^Pratihara dynasty ceased
to rule more than a century before Idrisi’s time. But the case
of Qamrun, i. e. Kamarupa or Assam, is far worse, since it
was the name of a country and was neither a hereditary royal
title nor a dynastic designation. It is apparently this sort of
confusion in the minds of the Arab writers, which led them
to mention Dahmd^ etc., sometimes as a royal designation and
sometimes as the name of a kingdom. But there can be no
doubt that Dahmd^ etc., stand for Dharma^ a shortened form of
the name of the Pala emperor Dharmapala. His mention by
the Arabs long after his death is explained by similar references
like Idris! speaking of the Gkirjara-Pratihara emperor in 1154
A.D. But it seems that Devapala (c. 810-50 A. the son
and successor of Dharmapala and the contemporary of the
Gurjara-Pratihara king Bhoja (c. 836-85 A. D. ) and the
Rastrakiita king Amoghavarsa ( 814-78 A. D.) who transferred
his capital to Manyakheta (Mankir of the Arabs), is mentioned
by the Arab writers by the name of his father as Dharma
apparently through the confusion referred to above.

Minorsky identifies the East Indian king, whom he calls
Dahum^ with the Candella king Dhanga (c. 950-1002 A. D. )
while K. G. Panigrahi takes him to be a ruler of the Bhauma
(Bhauma-Kara ) dynasty of Orrisa.t Both these suggesstions
are utterly unconvincing, since neither the Candella nor the
Bhauma-Kara kingdom adjoined Assam. Moreover, it is
impossible to explain how the less important ruler of
Bundelkhand and Orissa would be mentioned as the greatest
king of Eastern India and the mighty Pala emperor, who
was one of the most powerful monarchs of his age, should be
passed over in silence by the Arab writers while describing the
political condition of India in the age of the Rastrakutas. As
regards the Candella king, it has to be noticed that, even after

I. Minorsky, cit,^ pp. 236-38;
Karas and Samamnisis of Orissa^ pp.

Panigrahi,

Chronology of the Bhauma-

VANGA AND VAnGALA

147

the composition of Sulaiman’s work in 851 A. D., in the year
854 A. D- when the Khajuraho inscription was engraved,
Dhahga was a feudatory of the GTirjara-Pratlhara emperor
Vinayakapala, and claimed to have been the ruler of the terri-
tory bounded by Kalafljara in the Banda District, Bhasvat on
the Malava-nadi (Bhilsa on the Vetravati or Betwa in the
old Gwalior State), the Gopa hill or Gwalior, the Kalindi
(Yamuna) and the Cedi country in the Jabalpur region-^ This
territory, again, did not lie on the sea as required by the Arabs*
description of the East Indian kingdom.

There are two interesting passages in Hie Hud ud al-*Alam
in its description of the towns of Hindustan, which may throw
some light on the relations of the said East Indian king (i- e.
Dharmapala or Devapala) with the contemporary ruler of
Orissa. They run as follows in Minorsky’s translation :2

I. “Nmyas, Harkand, ‘Orshin, Smndr, Andras — these
five large towns (lands ? ) are situated on the sea-coast, and
the royal power in them belongs to Dahum. Dahum does not
consider any one superior to himself and is said to have an
army of 300,000 men. In no place of Hindustan are fresh
aloes found but in [the possessions] of the king of Qamrun
and of Dahum. These countries produce in large quantities
good cotton which [grows] on trees yielding their produce
during many years. The product of this country is the white
conch which is blown like a trumpet and is called sanbak
{shankh). In this country there are numerous elephants.”

II. “Urshfin, a town with a district protruding into the
sea like an island. Its air is bad. That sea is called there
the Sea of Gulfs. The royal power belongs to a woman who is
called Rayina. Extremely large elephants are found there,
such as in no other place in India. From it come large quanti-
ties of pepper and rotang.”

Minorsky thinks that tJrshin mentioned in the first passage
is different from tJrshfin mentioned in the second.® But V. V*
Barthold,-* Nainar® and Panigrahi® take the two names,

1. Ep Ind.^ Vol. I, pp. 124 ff, text lines 26 and 28.

2 . Op* Ctt,y pp. 87-08.

3. Op. ciL, p. 243.

4. Ibid., p. 27.

5. Gf. op. ctt., p 85, note i88,

6. Op* ciL, pp. 64ff.

148 geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

also written as tymshxn, to be identical. If the identification is
accepted, it would appear that Orissa, ruled by a queen, form-
ed a part of the empire of the Eastindian monarch. In that
case, the ruling queen of Orissa must have acknowledged the
Suzerainty, or at best was a subordinate ally, of the Pala empe-
rcMTS, Dharmapala and Devapala.

Several queens are known to have sat on the throne of
the Bhauma-Karas of Orissa, whose era started from 831 A.D.,
the earliest of the queens being Tribhuvana-mahadevi I, who
issued a charter in the year 120 =951 A. She therefore

flourished about a century after Devapala. But an earlier
queen named Gosvamini is mentioned in the charter of Tri-
bhuvanamahadevi I,^ though it is not possible to determine
whether this Gosvamini or any other ruling queen of Orissa
is referred to by the Arab writers as a contemporary of Dharma-
pala or Devapala. The name RqyinS, also written as Rabiya,
may be a wrong Arabic transliteration of Sanskrit rajni meaning
‘the queen’-

Before closing the subject, it may be pointed out that the
Arab writers sometimes confused the Pala empire (Rahma)
with the Orissan principality ruled by a queen. Thus Ibn-
al-Fakih (902 A. D. ) says, “In India lies a realm called
Rahma bordering on the sea. Its ruler is a woman. It is
ravaged by the plague and any man who comes from else-
where in India and enters the country (Rahma) diest here.
Yet many come by reason of the great profits to be made.”^
About 902 A. D., the Pala empire was ruled by king Narayana-
pala (c. 854-908 A. D-) and not by a woman.

1 . Gf, Ep. Ind. , Vol. XXIX, p. 8o, note 6; p. igi;, note 2.

2. B. ISdisra, Orissa under the jBhatana Kiu^s^ p* 25-
3- Harvey, History of Burma, p. 10,

Chapter VIII

SAMATATA

The Ashrafpur (Dacca District) copper-plate grants^ of
king Devakhadga (middle of the seventh century A. D. ) of
the KLhadga dynasty of East Bengal were issued from the royal
residence at Elarmanta which may have been the capital
of the K-hadgas. Because a gold-covered Sai-vani image^,
caused to be made by Devakhadga’s queen Prabhavati, was
discovered at Deulbad.! about 14 miles to the south of Comilla
(Tippera District) and the official designation Karmantapdla
occurring in the Nartesvara image inscription foimd at Bharella
in the Ba^kamta Police Station of the Tippera District was
understood as ^the lord of Karmanta’ (though it really means
‘the superintendent of the royal barns’), N- Kl. Bhattasali was
inclined to believe that KLarmanta was the capital of the Sama-
tata country (which , in his opinion, covered the Tippera and
Noakhaii Districts together with the eastern half of the Mymen-
singh and Dacca Districts and the greater part of the Sylhet
District) and that the city stood at the site of modern Bad-
KLamta (literally ‘the bigger Kanata) about three miles from
Bharella. 2 It is difficult to accept all these views. In the first
place, ‘the eastern half of the Dacca and Miymensingh Districts
and the greater part of the Sylhet District* do not appear to
have formed any part of Samatata. Secondly, the recent dis-
covery of the Kailan copper-plate inscription^ of king Sri-
dharanarata of Samatata, shows that, about the middle of
the seventh century A.D., when the ELhadgas were ruling
over the Dacca region in Vanga, the R.atas were holding sway
over Samatafa, although very soon Devakhadga extiipated
Rata rule and annexed Samatata to his dominions. It, there-
fore, seems that Devakhadga’s capital was somewhere in the
Dacca region. Thirdly, the said KLailan inscription and the

I. Gf. Bhandarkar’s List of Inscriptions, Nos. 1394 and 1588.

J&p, Ind.^ Vol. XVIX, pp- 349 ft.

3. IHCl, Vol. XXIII, pp. 1221 if.

150 GfiOGkAPHY OjF AKCIEKT AKB MEBIBAB INBIA

recently discovered Tippera copper-plate grant^ of Bhavadeva
suggest that the capital of Samatafa in the seventh and the
following centuries was not at Karjnanta but at the city of
Devaparvata on the river Ksiroda. The Ksiroda is the modern
Khira or Khirnai which is a dried-up river course traceable
as branching off liom the Gomati just west of the town of
Gomilla. It flows by the eastern side of the Mainamati hills
and skirts their southern end near the Gandimuda peak where
another branch of the river meets it flowing by the western
side of the hills- The river thus surrounds the southern end
of the Mainamati hills where the ancient hill-fort of Deva-
parvata seems to have been situated.

Further light has now been throwxa on Devaparvata, the
capital of the bamataja country during the early medieval
period by the Pascimbhag copper-plate grant of king Sri-
candra (c. 923-73 A. D- } of the Candra dynasty (which ori-
gixially ruled over Candradvipa or Vahgaladesa in the
Buckergunge region^ but later extended its power over Vahga,
Samataja and brihafta) recently edited by Sri Kamalakanta
Gupta Ghaudhury in the j\'ahni Kanta Bhattasali Commemoration
Volume published by the Dacca Museum in 1966.^ Unfor-
tunately, the illustration of the writing on both sides of the
plate as published by Gupta Ghaudhury is not satisfactory
wiule his reading and interpretation of the new stanzas occur-
ling only in the Pascimbhag inscription contain errors.

V^rse 7 of the Pascimbhag plate, which mentions the
city ol’ Devaparvata on the Ksiroda river in the Samata^a
couiiUy while describing the achievements of Trailokyacandra
(c. 9U5-25 A.D.) the father of Sricandra, runs as follows :

K^irodam^anu Devaparvata iti srimat=^tad=^etat=puram

jatr=dgantu-Janasja vismqya^rasah Kamboja^vdrt-ddbhutaili I

L,dlambi^vanam=.atra 7idvika = ^atairzzzanvi^ya siddh^aiL^adhi^-

vydhdrd iti ha druids Samatapxnzz=.nirjitya yaUsainikaih [\

The stanza may be interpreted as follows: After having
conquered Samatata, Trailokyacandra’s soldiers exclaimed.

I* Juum. As, Betters, Voi. XV il, pp* 83 fL

bee pp. lob ii‘.. Plates XXXVI-XXXVII.

SAMATA^A

iSl

*^Tlxat prosperous Devaparvata^lying on the K^iroda is this
city where the visitor has the feeling of astonishment at the
wonderful reports about the K.ambojas/'* and, having searched
the Lalambi forest in the area through hundreds of boatmen,
they heard the tales about superbly efficacious medicinal herbs*
Unfortunately, Gupta Ghaudhury commits two errors in
reading the verse : (1 ) he reads K^iroddm -=anu as K^iroddmamt

(which is meaningless) and then makes it K^trod’-ambu (which
violates the metre ), and (2 ) the word ndvika is read by him as
vdtika. His translation of the stanza consequently runs as
follows : “"In consequence of the strange news of Kamboja,
the new-comers to this illustrious capital, like the venerable
mountain (i.^., the Mandara Mountain) in the waters of the
K-siroda (sea) were struck with feelings of wonder, whose
soldiers conquered Samata^a where was situated the forest of
Lalamvi, traditionally said to have been filled with sure
medicinal herbs sought for by hundreds of persons Suffering
from the morbid affection of the nervous system-’"

The verse offers much valuable information. In the first
place, it speaks of the conquest of the Samatata country,
the present Tippera-lNfoakhali region of South-East Bengal
within East Pakistan, by the Gandra king Trailokyacandra,
Verse 8 of the Pascimbhag, plate refers to the invasion also of
the Vahga country by Trailokyacandra when it says that his
forces enjoyed, out of curiosity, the famous curds of the Vanga
country at the village of Krsnasikharin and its hamlets. Un-
fortunately Gupta Ghaudhury reads canga for Vanga in the
passage bhvktvd Vanga-dadhini K$Tna§ikhari--grdme§u and trans-
lates it as ‘ 'drinking nice coagulated milk out of curiosity in
villages ensconced amidst black hills.” It has to be remem-
bered in this connection that Ti'ailokyacandra is sometimes
described in the Gandra records as "the pearl of the Vahga
country^* and also as "the mainstay of the royal fortunes of
the kings of Harikela (h Sylhet}’ even though he is
represented as the king essentially of Gandra-^dvipa. The claims
of Trailokyacandra have now to be read along with his son
Sricandra"s rule over Vahga, Samataja and Srihatfa with his
capital at Vikt'amapura in Vahga.

In the second place, the reference to Devaparvata in the
Pascimbhag plate supports the evidence of the Kaila^ and

1S2

GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT AND MEDiPVAE INDIA

Tippera plates and suggests that the said city lying on the bank
of the K§iroda river was the capital of the Samata^a country.
The reference to hundreds of boatmen in verse 7 of the Pascim-
bhag plate reminds us of the description of the ELsiroda river
in the KLailan plate as naubhiT-^aparimitdbhir-^uparacita-‘kuld.

Thirdly, shortly before the Candra invasion of Samatata,
ihe city of I>evaparvata seems to have been devastated by the
ELambojas. The name Kamboja is probably the Sanskritised
form of the name of the Koch people of North Bengal, a few
kings of this clan being known from their inscriptions to have
been ruling in the northern and south-western regions of
Bengal in the tenth century A. I>- They must have carved
out their kingdoms at the expense of the Pala emperors. It
may be remembered in this connection that an ethnically allied
tribe called Mec (Sanskritised as Mleccha) ruled Assam from
the middle of the seventh to the beginning of the eleventh
century A. D.

Lastly, Lalambi-vana, which is no doubt the present
Lalmai hills near Comilla, seems to have been famous for its
medicinal herbs* Its mention in the present context throws
welcome light on the controversy regarding the identification of
Rohitagiri mentioned in Candra records as the original home
of the Gandras. Most scholars identified Rohitagiri with
modern Rohtasgadh in the Shahabad District of Bihar. But
N. K. Bhattasali suggested that might be a Sanskritised

form of Ldlmdi {Ldlmdti or red earth}- Of course, the modifica-
tion oi Ldl~mdti to Ldl-mdi seems to be philologically unsound.
In any case, the Pascimbhag plate mentioning Ldlmdi as
Ldlambt shows that Bhattasali^s suggestion is wrong and that
it offers no challenge to the identification of Rohitagiri with
Rohtasgadh.

There is a confusion regarding the identification of the
geographical name variously given as Saknat, Sankat and San-
knat in the manuscripts of the Tabaqdt-uNd$irt by Minhajuddin
of Siraj ’in his account of Mubuinmad-i-Bakhtiyar’s conquest of
Nudia (Nava^dvipa, i.e. Nadia on the Bhagirathi in South-
west Bciagal) in the dominions of the Sena king Laksmana-

SAMATA^’A

153

Sena of Bengal* The text of Minhajudin^s work was published
in Calcutta in 1864 and was translated by Raverty in 1881*
A translation of parts of the TabaqoUi-^Js^d^iri was also incorpo-
rated in Elliot’s and I>owson’s History qf India as told by its
own Historians^ Voh pp- 259 fF*

Minhajuddin says that^ on the eve of Bakhtiyar’s invasion^
many people of Nudia *went aw^ay to the country of Saknat-
Sankat-Sanknat, and to the cities of Bang and Kami up; but
Rai Lakhmania did not like to leave his territory*’^ jj^ Raverty’s
translation, the passage in question runs as follows : ‘Most of the
Brahmanas and inhabitants of that place retired into the pro-
vince of Sankanat-Saknatj the cities and towns of Bang, and
towards Kamrud ; but to begin to abandon his country was
not agreeable to Lakhmania/i^ On the fall of Nudia, ‘Rai
Lakhmania went towards Saknat-Sankat and Bang, where he
died. His sons are to this day rulers of the territory of Bang.’'^
In Raverty’s translation we have, ‘Laklunania got away towards
Sankanat-Saknat and Bang, and there the period of his reign
shortly came to a termination. His descendants up to this
time are rulers in the country of Bang.’*

Stewart in his History oj Bengal took Saknat-Sankat-Sanknat
to be identical with Jagannath (Jagannatha-puri), i.e. modem
Puri in Orissa, and Howson drew the attention of scholars to
this view. But Minhajuddin makes it clear that Saknat-Sankat-
Sanknat was the name of a country or province and not a city
like Puri and that it was adjacent to Bang (Vuhga having in this
age its headquarters at Vikramapura dn the Dacca District of
East Bengal) or at least lay in the direction of Bang from the
Nadia side. It appears moreover that, with the loss of the
Nadia-Lakhnauti(Gaur) region, i* e. the western part of the
Sena kingdom, Laksmanasena took shelter in the eastern part
of his dominiojis. It is impossible to infer from Minhajuddin’s
evidence that the Sena king left his dominions and took shelter
at the court of the contemporary Gahga king of Orissa, who
was one of his enemies.

1. Elliot and Dowson, op. cit., p, 308.

2. Op. p. 558.

3. Elliot and Dowson, op. cit., p. 309.

4. Gf. N- G. Majumdar, Ins, Beng^^ V'oL III, p. 107.

154 geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

Commenting on tlie passages quoted from Elliot’s and
Dow son’s work in his Studies in IndO’-MusHm History^ Hodivala
says, '"Dow’son notes tnat Sankuat is also written Sankat aurd
Saknat and he asks if it is not Jagannath. But Minhaj states a
few lines lower down that hakJtimajLua himself fled to Sankndt
and Bang and that diis sons are to this day rulers in the territory
ol Bang/ Now V^^hga or Bahga is the specific name of Eastern
Bengal and we possess epigraphic evidence of Laksnaanasena’s
descendants having ruled for at least three generations (sic) at
Vikrampur near Sonargaon in Dacca. Sanknat may be a
mistake for Sonargaon or Songaon. A still nearer phonetic
approach (sic) would be Satgaon (oetter — Satgaon) and it is
possible that Minhaj who knew little or nothing of Bengal
geography has confused the two names. Hooghly distinct in
which Satgaon lay was under Hindu mle for long after
the Muhammadan conquest of Lakhnauti."’-*- Unfortunately
these suggestions about the location of Saknat-Sankat of the
Tabaqdt-'i’-j\'d^iri are equally untenable, although Hodivala
is right in lus criticism of the Jagannath theory. Mmhajuddin
stayed at Lakhnauti for over two years in 1242-45 A.D.^ and
could hardly have been as ignorant of the geography of Bengal
as Hodivala takes him to have been. Sonargaon was not a
country and, since it was a city in Bang, it is certainly absurd
to speak of one’s flight towards Sonargaon and Bang. The
arguments against the identification of Saknat-Sankat-Sanknat
with Jagannath or Puri, offered by Hodivala himself, are
equally applicable against its identification with Satgaon which
lay to the soum of Nadia unlike the Vikramapura region lying
to its east.

The History of Bengal^ published by the Dacca Univer-
sity, offers conflicting suggestions regarding the identification
of Minliajuddiix’s Saknat-Sankat-Sanknat. In Volume I
of this work, R. C. Mujumdar refers to Sahkafa-grama,
mentioned in Sandhyakaranandin’s Rdmacarita as the terri-
tory of one of Ramapala’s feudatories named Candarjuna,
and observes, '^'^Ain^i'-Akbarz refers to pargana Sakot in Sarkdr
Satgaon. The name Sakot resembles Sankafa Sankata-

1. Op^ cit.^ 207.

2. Of, Elliot and Dowson^ op. cit., p, 260.

samata^a

155

grama is probably the same as Saftka-kota referred to In Valid-
lacarita andSankanat referred to in Tabaqdt-i-jYd^in-'''^ It will
be seen that the identification of Saknat-Sankat-Sanknat
with a locality near Satgaon is as untenable as its location at
Satgaon itself.

In Volume II of the above work, K. R. Qanungo says,
‘‘The region to which Rai Lakhmania fled from Nadia Is named
in the T* JV*. as Bang wa S-n^k-n^dU Bang means East Bengal
and the second place-name is a copyist’s error for Sil-ha{, i.e.
Sylhet. The invariable practice of Persian writers is to designate
a district by joining together tw’O well-know^n places in it, which
might be even 50 miles apart; e, g. Suitanpur-Nandurbar,
Vani-Dindori, Trimbak-Nasik, Dholpur-Bari, Kora-Jahanabad,
Kara-Manikpur.’’-^ Of all the identifications of Saknat-Sankat-
Sanknat of the Tabaqdt-i-Jsfd^iri proposed by scholais and dis-
cussed above, Qanungo’s suggestion appears to be the least
objectionable, as Sylhet may be regarded as a district adjacent
to Bang. But the statement that Bang and Saknat-Sankat-San-
knat have been mentioned jointly to indicate a district like
Sultanpur-Nandurbar is clearly wrong. The passage ho the
country of Saknat-Sankat-Sanknat and to the cities of Bang and
Kamrup’ quoted above from Elliot’s and Dowson’s translation
of the TabaqdUi--J\fd^iri shows beyond doubt that Saknat-Sankat-
Sanknat did not form an integral part of Bang. The other
passage quoted from the same work, however, suggests that
this territory lay adjacent to Bang, and the Sylhet District no
doubt suits this position- As regards the possibility of scribal
errors in the transliteration of Sil-hat (actually Silkaf from
Srihatfa or ^rihafa) as Saknat, Sankat or Sanknat in the Perso-
Arabic script, we may cite many other instances of the type,«
It should, be pointed out that, though the Srihatja or Sylhet

1. Op. ciL, p. 158 .

2. op, p, 4.

3. Gt\ Ray, VoL II, pp. 5991!., 69B, etc. Gf. ^Kanau^ scadjuitdi^

when spelt without diacritical points, assuix^c the same form ; a good iliustia-
tion of the diiEculty of readmg accurately oriental names: — heie two woids
of the same form have not a letter in common’ (Elliot and Dowson, op.

P* 45)-

156 GKOCKAPHY OF ANCIENT ANX> MEDIEVAL INbtA

territory is reffered to in the Pascimbhag plate of Srxcandra
mentioned above, the more popular name of the district as
mentioned in the Chittagong plate (about the ninth century
A.D. ) of king Kantideva as the Harikela (sometimes called
Harikeli or Harikela) mandala (province). Moreover, both Bang
and Saknat Sankat-Sanknat appear to have formed a part of
the dominions of Laksmanasena vsrhile there is hardly any evi-
dence in favour of the inclusion of Sylhet in the Sena kingdom-
Viewed from this angle, the identification of Saknat-Sankat-
Sanknat with Sylhet does not appear to be entirely beyond
doubt. On the other hand, there was another territory near Bang
( V^hga), which was not only well known in Indian literature
between the fourth and the thirteenth century A-D- but also
probably formed a part of Lak^manascna’s kingdom* Its name
again may be regarded as the origin ofSaknat-Sankat-Sanfcnat of
the Perso- Arabic script with equal plausibility as Silha^ (Sylhet)
if not with more justification. This is the country of Samatata
which was the name of the Tippera-Noakhali region of South-
East Bengal as late as the thirteenth century when the T^abaqdt^U
Jsfd^in was composed. It has to be remembered that Samatata
as a territory near Vafiga was considerably more important
than iSrihatta or Sylhet The intended reading for Minhajud-
din’s Sakndt-Sankdt’-Sankndt thus appears to have been Samtaf
or Santa t

The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta {circa
340-76 A.13. ) mentions the Samatata country while Va-raha-
mihira’s Brhatsamhitd (sixth century A.D. ) distinguishes it from
The country is mentioned in the seventh century in the
accounts of the celebrated Chinese pilgrims Hiuen-tsang and
I-tsing ajs well as in the BLailan platet of king Sridharana of the
Rata dynasty, who is described as the lord of Samatata. The
same country is further mentioned in the Baghaura inscrip-
tion” of Mahipala I {circa 988-1038 A. D. ) and in the Mehar
plate^ (1234 A.D.) ofJDamodara. The Mehar plate mentions

1. IHd, Vol. XXIII, pp. 221 fr.

2. Ind,, VoL XVII, p. 355.

3. Xbid.^ VoL XXVII, pp. 182 ff.

samatata

157

Samatata as a mandala or province. The name Samatata disap-
peared from Indian geography after the thirteenth century A-D-
King Laksmanasena ruled from his headquarters at
Vikramapura in the Dacca District in Va-hga at least up to
1205-06 A.D. when SrTdharadasa compiled his Saduktikamamrta.
King Visvarupasena, son and successor of Laksmanasena,
ruled after his father at least for fourteen years as known from
the Madanpada plate. ^ The T'abagat-i-JVafirt speaks of Sena
rule in Bang as late at least as 1242-45 A. D. when Min-
hajuddin was staying at Lakhnautl. But about this time
the erstwhile feudatories of the Senas in the Samataja or
Tippera-Noakhali region asserted their independence. A king
named Harikaladeva Ranavahkamalla was ruling over the
kingdom of Pa^pkera in the Tippera District in 1221 A.D.
while another king named Damodara is known to have established
his suzerainty in the Tippera-Noakhali-Chittagong region and
to have been ruling from 1231 A.D. at least up to 1243 A.D.
Damodara belonged to the Deva family and was preceded on
the throne by his father Vasudeva, grandfather Madhusiidana
and great-grandfather Purusottama. It seems that the
earlier members of this family acknowledged the supre-
macy of the Senas of Vikramapura. Some of Damodara’s
epithets as found in his inscriptions are clearly imitated from
those of the Later Senas, used in the copper-plate grants of
king Visvarupasena. This shows that, even if the Senas were
continuing their precarious existence at Vikramapura as late
as the fifth decade of the thirteenth century (as indicated by
the Tabaqdt-i-JVdfin), they were no better than subordinate
allies of the Deva king. Damodara’s son, Da^aratha, issued his
charters from Vikramapura which had been previously the
capital of the Senas in Vanga. This points to the complete
overthrow of the Senas. Dasaratha’s title Arirajadanujamadhava
suggests that he is identical with Danuj Rai, Raja of Sonargaon
(near Vikramapura) close to Dacca, who, according to Ziaud-
din Barani, entered into an agreement with Sultan Ghiyasud-
din Balban of Delhi about 1281 A-D. that he should guard
against the escape of the rebellious Sultan Mughisuddin Tughril

I. See jfASy Letters, VoL XX, pp. 209 fF. ; cf, pp. 201 fF. There
was no king named Kesavasena in the Sena dynasty. See alsoj^. Ind.^ VoL
XXXni, pp. sisff.

158

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Khan of Lakhnauti by water. ^ Thus the Devas of Samatata
were the successors of the Senas at Vikramapura in Vanga.

Earlier expeditions of the Muslim rulers of Lakhnauti
against the country of Bang do not appear to have been success-
ful. But Sultan Tughril Khan, who began, to rule in 1268
A.D., is doubtfully said to have built a fort at Loricol about
25 miles due south of Dacca and to have invaded the kingdom
of Hill Tlppera .2 In course of his Bengal compaign, Sultan
Ghiyasuddln Balban claimed to have subdued Iqlim-i-Lakh-
nautf and ^Arsah-i-Bangala while he advised his son Nasimd-
din Bughra Khan, whom he left as the governor of Muslim
Bengal, to exert for the conquest of Diyar-i-Bangala.^ It is
probable that the dominions of Dasaratha or Danuj Rai of
Sonargaon in Bang were included in this Diyar-i-Bangala^^
When exactly the Deva dynasty of Sonargaon was over-
thrown by the Muslims is not known, Jalaluddin, a son of
Sultan Shamsuddin Firuz-Shah (1301-22 A. D.) is known
to have issued coins from the Lakhnauti mint ‘from the spoils
of Bang’ while a coin of Shamsuddin Firuz Shah issued from
his mint at Sonargaon itself bears the date 710 A* H- -=1310-1 1
A.D.^ Thus the Deva dynasty of Sonargaon seems to have
been extirpated by the Muhammadans shortly after the reign
of Dasaratha. A copper-plate grant issued by a ruler named
Vlradharadeva in his 15th regnal year has been recently dis-
covered at Mainamati in the Tippera District of East Pakistan,®
He seems to have been the successor of Dasarathadeva.

1. Hid, Vol II, p. 65.

2. Ibid., p. 59.

3. Ijid,^ p. 67. In Minhajuddm's TabaqdtA-Jsdnil. the land of
Vanga is called Bilad-i-Bang, Wdayat-i-Bang and Mamalik-i-Bang, while
Laksmanavati i^Gaudaj is called, besides Shahr-i-Lakhnauti, also Mama-
lakat-i-Lakhnauti, Mamalik-i- Lakhnauti, Diyar-i- Lakhnauti, Bilad-i-
Lakhnautl, Mulk-i-LakhnautI and Khitta-i-Lakhnauti. See op ctt.y pp. 43,

71, 73-73? 83, 83, 107, 131, 143, 161, 165 ,

4. About this time, the lower portion of South-West Bengal seems to
have formed a part of the dominions of the Ganga kings of Orissa. From the
twelfth to the sixteenth century, the Bhagirathi was claimed to have been
the eastern boundary of the kingdom of Orissa. The upper part of that area,
called Ral (Radha), formed one wing of the Muslim territory of Lakhnauti,
its other wing being Barind (Varendra), according to Minhajuddin. The
city of Devkot was situated in Barind,

5. Mist. Beng. op. cit., pp. 80-81.

6. F. A, Kh a n , Further Excavations in East Pakistan : Mainamati:, p. 26,

Ghaptbr IX

FRAGJYOTISA

F. E. Pargiter published a paper entitled 'Ancient Count-
ries in Eastern India’ in the yournal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal^ 1897 . Many of the results of this study were later incor-
porated in his English translation of the Alarkandeya Purdipx
(1904)5 in which he made a laudable attempt to locate the
peoples or countries mentioned in the geographical section of
the said Purana.

Unfortunately, some of Pargiter’s identifications of loca-
lities are clearly wrong. Thus he locates the Pundras in the
northern areas of Chota Nagpnr in the southern region of
Bihar and the Utkalas in the land extending from the southern
part of Chota Nagpur to the Balasore district of Orissa. As
regards the latter, Kalidasa’s Raghuvamia (Canto IV) makes it
clear that they lived in the land to the west of the Kapi^a
(modern Kasai ) running through the Midnapore District in
South-West Bengal between the deltaic region of South Bengal
inhabited by the Vangas and the country of the Kalingas whose
king is called Mahendrandtha^ i.e., the lord of the Mahendragiri
peak in the Qanjam District of Orissa. The Utkalas therefore
lived in the Balasore District and the adjoining coastal regions.
There is really no evidence suggesting the inclusion of Southern
Chota Nagpur in the Utkala country. Likewisea in locating
the Pundras, Pargiter ignored the evidence of the JDwydoaddna
and the records of the age of the Palas and their contemporaries,
and we have now inscriptions of the Maurya and Gupta epochs
— all clearly indicating that this people lived in North Bengal.
According to the Divydvaddna^^ the city of Pundravardhana lay
beyond Kajahgala the eastern border of the land which was the
early sphere of Buddhism (i.e. Bihar and Eastern U- P- ), while
epigraphic records of the early mediaeval period apply the name
Pundravardhana-bhukti to North Bengal, its chief city being

I. Ed. P. L. Vaidya, p. 13. Pimdrarardhana is explained as ‘the
city of the Papdras% vardhana being the same as Old Persian vardana. See
Moaier- Williams, Sam. -Bug. Diet., s. v, vardhana.

160

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Pundravardhana, identified with modern Mahasthan in the
Bogra District.i The Damodarpur plates of the Gupta age show
that Kotivarsa(the area around modern Bangadh in the Dinaj-
pur District) was a si$aya or district of the bhukti or province
of Pundravardhana.2 The Mahasthan inscription of the third
century B-C. not only proves that Pundravardhana was also
called Pundranagara, ‘the city of the Pundras’, but also sup-
ports its identification with Mahasthan.^ Hiuen-tsang, the
Chinese pilgrim of the seventh century A.D-, travelled from
Kajahgala (modern Rajmahal in East Bihar) to the east to
Pundravardhana and thence to the east to Kamarupa (Pra-
gjyotisa).* Thus Pargiter’s location of the Pundras in Northern
Chota Nagpur is palpably untenable.

It is a matter of regret that the wrong location of the Pundras
influenced Pargiter’s identification of the land of the Pragj-
yotisa people and this has also affected writers on the early
history of Assam.

According to Pargiter, the early kingdom of Pragjyptisa
comprised the major part of modem Assam together with the
Jalpaigurij Cochbihar, Rangpur, Bogra, Mymensingh, Dacca
and Tippera Districts and parts of the Pabna District in Bengal
and probably also the eastern areas of Nepal.® He points out
that the Pragjyotisa country bordered on the lands of the
Kiratas and Ginas forming the retinue of Bhagadatta of the
M.ahabhdrata, etc., who also drew his troops from the dwellers
of Sagaranupa (marshy region near the sea) and is even
represented as dwelling in the Eastern Sea. It is suggested
that ‘these marshy regions can only be the alluvial tracts and
islands near the mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra

1. See Maitreya, Gaudalekkamald, pp. 15, etc.; Majumdar, Ins. Beng.,
Vol. Ill, pp 2, etc.

2. Select Inscriptions, pp, 283-84, etc.

3. Ibid., pp. 82-83.

4. Watters, On Tuan Chwang’s Travels in India, Vol. II, pp. i84ff.
The pilgrim noticed a stupa built by the Maurya emperor Asoka (third
century B.G.) at the city of Pundravardhana though no Asokan stupa -was
found by him in Kamarupa. Considering the tradition that Aioka built
84,000 stupas throughout his empire, it seems that North Bengal was included
in his donainions, but Assam was not.

5. JASB, 1897, p. 106.

PRAGJYOTISA

161

as they existed anciently^ so that ‘Pragjyotisa comprised the
whole of North Bengal proper’. ^

K. L. Barua, in his Early History of Kdmarupa^^ refers to
Pargiter’s views and suggests that the western l>Dundary of
Pragjyotisa was the Kosi river in Bihar and that the Purnea
District was included in it. This, however, clearly goes against
the epic and Puranic tradition regarding Paundraka Vasudeva
{i.e- Vasudeva, king of the Pundras), the epigraphic and
literary evidence about the location of the land of the Pundras
in North Bengal and of Pragjyotisa or Kamarupa in the Brah-
maputra Valley, and the Chinese Tang-^sku and the Kdlikd
Pundna and Togint Eantya stating clearly that the western
boundary of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa was the river Karatoya.
Some scholars believe that the Karatoya was originally a very
big river uniting in its bed the streams of the present Tista,
Kosi and Mahananda.®

The Nidhanpur (Sylhet District) charters originally issued
by Mahabhutavarman of Pragjyotisa in the sixth century and
renewed by his descendant Bhaskaravarman about the middle
of the following century, records the grant of land near the
Kausika (sometimes called §u§ka or dried up), and Barua identi-
fies it with the Kosi in Bihar, though others prefer its identi-
fication with the Kusiyara in the Sylhet region near Assam.^

1. Phe Aldrkand^ya Purdna^ p. 328, note. Pargiter even goes so far as
to say, ‘‘The Raghuvam^a places it seemingly beyond the Brahmaputra (IV.
81); but Kalidasa was a little uncertain in distant geography.’^ Since
Kalidasa fiourish3d at the court of the Gupta emperors w^hose dominions in-
cluded the province of Pundravardhana (North Bengal) and bordered on the
i>ratyanta kingdom of Kamarupa, another na me of Pragjyotisa, it is impos-
sible to think that the poet was ignorant of the location of this country. But
KllidSsa says that the king of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa trembled when Raghu
crossed the Lauhitya (Brahmaputra j which is thus not represented as a
boundary of the country. The Aphsad inscription (C 7 /, Vol III, pp. 203,
206) also places it in the valley of the Lohitya (Lauhitya) while describing
the victory of Mahasenagupta over Susthita\arman. It may however be
noted that, while Mahasenagupta invaded Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa from the
east or south-east, Raghu entered the country from the Himalayan region
in the north.

2. Gf. pp. 2-3.

3. Gait, History oj A<:sam^ 2nd cd . pp. lo-xi.

4. Barua, op, cit,, pp. 50-51; IHd, Vol. VH, p, 743 (823}.

162 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANI> MEDIEVAE INDIA

But Barua does not notice that, if the Purnea District of Bihar
formed a part of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa in the days of Bhas-
karavarman, contemporary Chinese writings would not have
mentioned the Karatoya as the boundary between Pundra-
vardhana and Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa.^^ Barua’s belief that
Pundravardhana w^s a part of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa in the
first quarter of the sixth century or about 525 A.D. when
Mahabhutavarman is supposed to have been ruling totally
ignores the evidence of the Damodarpur inscription of 543
A.D-, which includes the province of that name in the Gupta
empire. 2 If Madhasalmali in the Pundravardhana-bhukti,
mentioned in the Khalimpur plate of Dharmapala, is regarded
as identical with or situated near Mayurasalmali in the
Candrapuri-visaya as known from the Nidhanpur plates^ of
Mahabhutavarman and Bhaskaravarman, the inclusion of
Pundravardhana in Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa is scarcely proved
since certain border areas of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa may have
been annexed to the Pundravardhana-bhukti by the Pala
emperor. It is well known that, during the age of the Palas
and their contemporaries, wide areas of East and South Bengal
were comprised in the bhukti called Pundravardhana or
Paundra.

Accarding to the Kdlikd Purdna (chapter 38 ) compiled in
the Assam region during the early mediaeval period, Naraka,
son of the god Vlsnu and the goddess Earth, was taken to
P^^gjy^^^sapura near the temple of Kamakhya in the heart of
Kamarupa. He drove out the Kirata inhabitants of the country
from the area between the Karatoya in the west and the
Dikkaravasini and Lalitakanta in the east for settling the
twiceborn, while the Kiratas were rehabilitated in the sea coast
extending from Lalitakanta in the east. Similar information
is supplied by the late mediaeval Yogint Tantra according to
which Kamarupa was bounded in the north by the Kanjagiri
or Kancan-adri (probably the Kanchenjunga ) in Nepala^
in the west by the Karatoya, in the east by the Diksu river
or Dikkaravasini, and in the south by the Brahmaputra-

1. Watters, On Tuan Chwang^s Travels in India, Vol. II, pp. i84fr.
(cf. p. 1 86 and note i>).

2 . Select Ins,, pp. ssyfF,

3. Cf. P. N. Bhattacharya, Kdmarupaidsandvali, p- 6.

prAgjyotisa

163

sangama or the confluence of the Brahmaputra and the Laksa.^
The Diksu is no other than the modern Dikhu falling in the
Brahmaputra near Sibsagar in Assam, while the Laksa is the
modern Lakhya which joins the Brahmaputra in the Mymen-
singh District of East Pakistan. The temple of Dikkaravasini
is often located at Dikrang near Sadiya, and Lalitakanta is
likewise associated with the hill streams of Sandhya, Talita
and Kanta not far from Gauhati, the chief city of Assam, lying
a few miles from the Kamakhya temple^ and identified with
the ancient city of Pragjyotisapura.

It will be seen from the above discussion that the Karatoya
was regarded as the western boundary of Pragiyotisa-Kamarupa
from the seventh century A-D- while the same appears to have
been the case when North Bengal was included in the Magadha
empire under the Guptas from the fourth to the sixth century
A-D. and the Nandas and Mauryas between the fourth and
second century B.C. There is again no evidence to prove that
the position was otherwise between the fall of the Mauryas and
the rise of the Guptas. It may be mentioned in this connec-
tion that North Bengal was also called Varendra or Varendri
from the age of the Palas and that Sandhyakaranandin’s
Rdmacarita mentions Paundravardhanapura as the chief city
of Varendri which it locates between the Ganges and the
Karatoya.*

Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa is represented as a land some-
times of the north and sometimes of the east.* This is because
the country extended from the hilly region regarded as a part
of the Himalayas in the north to near about the junction of
the Brahmaputra and the Lakhya in the south. The Mohd-
bharata^ represents Bhagadatta as P urvasdgaravasin (dwelling
in the Eastern Sea) while the Rdmc^aifa^ states that Prag-
jyotisapura, the city of Bhagadatta’s father Naraka, was
situated on the Varaha mountain in the sea. The Mahd-
bharata? also represents Bhagadatta as the leader of the Ginas,

I. See Ep. Ind.^ Vol. XII, p. 68; Sircar, The £akta Pithas, p. 13 aod
note; cf, JAIH, Vol. I, pp. 19-20, locating the Dikkaravasini temple near
Pay a in the I^ohit District.

2* 'The Sdkta Pithas^ p-. 17, note 3.

3. See V.R.S. ed., pp. 84 (III. 10), 133 (V. 1).

4. The Markandeya Puroha, p. 328, note; Sircar, Cosm , etc., pp. 65.77.

5. V 4. ii; Xi. 23. 10.

6. IV. 42. 30-31. 7 - II- a6. 9; 33. 9-10.

164

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Kiratas, Mlecchas and Sagaranupavasins- It is therefore
interesting to note that, in the course of Arjuna’s digvijaya in
the north, he is said to have defeated Bhagadatta leading the
Ginas, Kiratas and Sagaranupavasins^ while Bhima in his
expedition in the east is said to have reached the Lauhitya
valley and defeated the MIeccha rulers and the Sagaranupa-
vasins-^

This sea or Eastern Sea not far from Pragjyotisa-K.ama-
rupa requires some explanation. As we have seen, Pargiter
supposed that it was below the mouths of the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra. But the deltaic region of South Bengal watered
by the mouths of the Ganges was inhabited by the ancient
people, called the Vahgas by the Indians and Gangaridae by
the Greeks, from very early times.* Since the Kalikd Purdna
seems to locate the sea to the east (or at least the south-east)
of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa, P. N- Bhattacharya considers it
possible that Bhagadatta’s empire extended upto the South
China Sea.^ But it is extremely doubtful if we can take the
Kalikd Purdna evidence so literally and conclude that such a
large area of South-East Asia was actually included in Prag-
jyotisa-Kamarupa. There was really no sea to the east or
south-east of the country. K.- L. Barua points to the application
of the name hdor (Sanskrit sdgara') to the marshy parts of
Sylhet and Mymensingh and refers to the Bhatera' copper-plate
inscription of Govinda Kesavadeva of iSrlhatta (Sylhet) men-
tioning the sea as the boundary of a plot of the gift land.* He
therefore concludes that the sea referred to was the low-lying
and water-logged land to the south of the Assam range and
s'^SS^sts that the said area may have been connected in olden
times with the Bay of Bengal (Eastern Sea) through the
estuaries of the Brahmaputra.

Considering the fact that the traditional southern boundary

1. Ihid., IL a6. 9.

2. Ihid,^ II, 30. 26-27.

3. See below, Ch. XIII.

4. Komar upaidsanavali^ Intro.,
country to the east of this land, cf.
Hmen Ksiang, pp. 132-33.

pp. 4, note 2; II, note 2. For the
Watters, op, ciLy p. 186; Beal, Life oj

line 4’ of Kamarupa,_ p. a; Ep. Ind Vol. XIX, p. aSa, text

of the MOT./ /i- used here ^ sdgara. An inscription of the Senas speaks

T^T of one of the plots of land granted (Majumdar,

Ins. Bmg., Vol. m, p. 146, text line 47).

pragjyotisa

165

of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa was the confluence of the Brahma-
putra and the Lakhya in the Mymensingh District, Bama’s
suggestion seems to be justifiable. In this connection, it may
also be noted that the epigraphic records of the kings of ancient
Assam speak of the Lauhitya or Brahmaputra as 'the sea% while
there is a tradition that, in ancient times, the Eastern Sea ex-
tended uptoDevikotta in the Dinajpur District of North Bengal.^
This also explains the mention of the Lauhitya in the Jilahd’-
bhdrata side by side with the Sagaranupavasins.

Reference may be made here to another point not
entirely unconnected with our topic. In an inscription of king
Jayadeva Paracakrakama of Nepal, probably dated in 737
A.D., his queen Rajyamati is described as born in Bhagadatta’s
family (to which all kings of ancient Assam claimed to have
belonged) and as the daughter of Harsadeva, called Gaud--
O dr-ddi-Kalinga-Kosala-pati^ 'lord of Gauda, Odra and other
lands as well as of Kalifiga and Kosala (apparently South
Kosala).’*2 This Harsadeva, father-in-law of the Nepalese king
Jayadeva, is generally identified with king Harsavarman, a
descendant of Salastambha who occupied the throne of Prag-
jyotisa-K.amarupa in the third quarter of the seventh century
A.D.^ But it is not noticed that, although Harsa was the
king of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa, neither Pragjyotisa nor Kama-
rupa occurs in the above list of his territories and that this fact
clearly points to the degree of historical accuracy to be ex-
pected in the description. We have similar other cases of
poetical excesses. Thus the Aihole inscription (634 A.D. ) of
Pulakesin II of Badami describes his father KTrtivarman I
as the vanquisher of the Nalas, Mauryas and Kadambas,
and nobody ever doubted the genuineness of the claim. But
the same Kirtivarman I is described in the Mahakuta pillar
inscription (602 A.D.) of his younger brother Mahgalisa as
the subduer of Vanga, Anga, Kalinga, Vattura, Magadha,
Madaraka, Kerala, Gafiga, Musaka, Pandya, Dramila,
Goliya, Aluka and VaijayantL It is interesting that, in this
list, Kirtivarman’s genuine victory over the Nalas and Mauryas
is conspicuously omitted, while his imaginary success against

1. Gf. Ep. Ind.^ Vol. XXIX, p, 151; above, p. 112, note r.

2. Gnoli, Nepalese Inscriptions in Gupta CharacUr^^ p. 117, verse 15.

3. SceBarua, op.cit., pp. 1 12-13; but cf. Gait,, op.cit.^ p. 30-

166 GEOCRAl>ECY OE A^^CIENT ANl> MEDIEVAL INDIA

the Vangas, Angas, Madrakas and others has been mentioned •
The conquest of Vaijayanti, the capital of the Kadambas, is
the only genuine claim of victory in the fictitious description of
the Mahakuta pillar inscription.^

The statement in the Nepalese inscription regarding the
lordship of Harsavarman of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa over a
number of countries in Eastern India should therefore be taken
with a grain of salt.

I. Gaz^, Vol. I, Partii, pp. 345-^46; The Classical Age, ed. Majum-

dar, pp. 232-33.

Chapter X

OMSa

Orissa is spelt Odisa in the language of the Oriyas. This
name seems to be derived from an earlier form like Audriya-
vi$aya through forms \i\l^ O d di-vis aa ‘acnA O di-visd . The Tibetan
author Taranatha mentions the name as O di-visa?' The tribal
name Udra or Odra lies at the root of all these forms. But
tJdra, Odra or Audra cannot be regarded as the earliest name of
Orissa.

In ancient times a powerful people called the Kalihgas
lived in the present Orissa region. In the third century B.G-,
the Maurya emperor Asoka {circa 269-232 B.G. ) conquered
the Kalihgas and annexed the Kalihga country to his empire.
The province of Kalihga in the Maurya empire was divided into
two administrative units. The north-eastern part of the country
had its headquarters at Tosali (although the land around the
city was later often called Tosala) which is the modern Dhauli
near Bhubaneswar in the Puri District of Orissa. In a later age,
kings of the Arya-Mahameghavahana family of the Gedi clan,
which is represented by Kharavela, described as ‘the supreme lord
of Kalihga’, appear to have had their capital at the same place.
In Maurya times, South-Western Kalihga had its headquarters at
the city of Samapa near modern Jaugada in the Ganjam District.
Indian literature intimately associates Kalihga with the Mahen-
dra-giri now standing on the borders of the Ganjam District of
Orissa near those of the Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh.
But there is no doubt that the Godavari or the Krsna was often
regarded as the south-western boundary of the Kalihga country.
This is indicated by the fact that, about the fifth century A.D.,
some rulers, enjoying the title Kalin g-ddhipati^ not only had
their capital at Pistapura, modern Pithapuram in the East
Godavari District, but sometimes even claimed lordship over

I. Ind. Ant., VoL IV, pp. 365-66.

168

GEOORAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

the whole coast land between the Krsna and the Mahanadi,^
Actually however, the north-eastern boundary of the
ancient Kalihga country lay even beyond the Mahanadi,
although Kalihga did not include the whole of modern Orissa.
The north-eastern part of coastal Orissa was included in early
times in the land of the Utkalas while the Patna-Sonpur region
in the upper valley of the Mahanadi formed the eastern part of
the country named Daksina-Kosala till the early medieval
period. But the Utkalas and some of their neighbours may have
been ethnically related to the Kalihgas. Indeed, an ancient
tradition recorded in the Mahdbhdrata and some of the Puranas^
regards the progenitors of the Ahgas of East Bihar, the Vahgas
of South Bengal, the Kalihgas, the Pundras of North Bengal
and the Suhmas of West Bengal as full brothers. Early
European writers sometimes represent the people of South Bengal
(Gangaridae) as a branch of the Kalihga peop^e.^

We have seen how the river Krsna was sometimes regarded
as the south-western boundary of the ancient Kalihga country.
But in the fourth and fifth centuides A.D., the Salahkayanas
ruling over the coast land between the Krsna and the Godavari
with their capital at the city of Vehgi (modern Peddavegi near
Eluru in the West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh) did not
claim to be lords of Kalihga. In the sixth and seventh centuries
the Visnukundins were ruling over the same area. They also
did not claim to be rulers of the Kalihga country. If the identifi-
cation of the Andhr^ddhipati^ mentioned in the Haraha inscription^
of the time of Maukhari Isanavarman, dated Vikrama 611 = 553-
54 A.D., with a Visnukundin monarch is accepted, the kingdom
of the Visnukundins was probably known as Andhra. During
the second quarter of the seventh century, the Eastern Galukyas
established themselves at Pistapura (Pithapuram in the East Go-
davari District) and ruled over the entire coast country from the
Visakhapatnam District in the north-east to the Guntur District

1 . Cf. Ep, Ind , Vol. XXX, p. 144.

2. Mahdbhdrata, I. 104. 53; Bhdgavaia, IX. 23. 5; Vdyu, 99, For the
separate mention of the XJdras and Utkalas in the JBrhatsamhitd, see below.

3. Pliny, Hzst, jSTaL, VI 21 ff-

4. Ep. Ind., VoL XIV, pp. ii5fF.

OpisX

169

in the south-west for many centuries. But their kingdom became
famous under the name of Vehgl. During this period, the major
portion of the Visakhapatnam District formed a part of Vehgl,
although the Yelamanchili Taluk of that District was called
Elamahci-Kalihgadesa. The Early Eastern Gahgas were ruling
over the area about the Srikakulam District (Andhra Pradesh )
with their capital at Kalihganagara, which has been identified
with modern Mukhalihgam near Srikakulam, from the close
of the fifth century A.D. They also enjoyed the title Kalzng-^
adhipati or lord of Kalihga. In the early medieval period, it is
only the kingdom of these Early Eastern Gahgas that was
exclusively known as Kalihga, because, as will be seen below,
the kingdoms in the Ganjam-Puri- Gut tack region assumed
different names such as Kohgoda, Tosali, Udra, etc., since the
latter part of the sixth century A.D. With the rise of the Imperial
branch of the Eastern Gahgas, and especially with the conquest
of the coast land between the Godavari and the Ganges (Bha-
girathi ) by the Imperial Gahga monarch Anantavarman
Codagahga (1078-1 147 A.D. ) about the beginning of the twelfth
century, the major part of ancient Kalihga came under the
Kalihga king. But the old name did not get time enough to
become popular again as the successors of Anantavarman Coda-
gahga soon transferred their capital to the Cuttack District
(Orissa ) far away from the Srikakulam region that had become
famous under the name Kalihga during the many centuries" rule
of the Early Eastern Gahgas.^ The Eastern Gahgas originally
lived in the present Kannada-speaking area of Mysore, whence
they migrated to and settled in the present Telugu-speaking area
of Srikakulam. The Kannada origin of the Eastern Gahgas is
not only supported by the copper-plate grants of Anantavarman
Codagahga and his successors,^ but also by the following state-
ment in the description of Codagahga in the Mddald Pdtijt^ ;

1. The tradition recorded in Yasodhara’s commentarj.’ on the Kama--
sutra (VI.6), composed about the middle of the thirteenth centur>' (cf. Kieth,
Hist. Sans. Lit., p. 469), that Kalihga lay to the south of Gauda seems to be
based on the Imperial Ganga occupation of parts of South-West Beng^.

2. Gf. Ep. Irid., Vol. XXVIII, p. 239.

3. Ed. Mahanti, p. 23. The statement is however anachronical.

170

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Cudaganga Karnata-desaru asi, etc. The mother tongue of the
Imperial Gahgas was originally Telugu. This is clearly indicated
not only by the great part Telugu plays even in their later docu-
ments, but also by the popularity of names like Aniyankabhima
which was later Sanskritised as Anangabhlma through the inter-
mediate form Anankabhima. After the transference of their
capital to the heart of Orissa, the Imperial Gangas began to be-
come Oriyas; but most of their matrimonial alliances were still
contracted with South Indian royal families and a large number
of their officials and proteges were South Indians.

With reference to the geography of Kalihga, mention has to
be made of the views of certain scholars based on the repeated
reference to the country in the Ceylonese chronicles. Chapter
59 of the Culavarhsa says how king Vijayabahu I (1055-1110
A.D. ) of Lanka married the Kalinga princess Trilokasundari and
offered befitting maintenances to her relations Madhukarnava
(Madhukamarnava ?), Bhimaraja and Balatkara of Sirhhapura,
capital of Kalihga, for settling them in his kingdom. The younger
sister of the Kalihga princess, Sundari by name, was given
in marriage to Vijayabahu’s sou Vikramabahu. In this con-
nection, Geiger observes, “Sihapura (Simhapura ) is the town
which according to the legend (cf. Mhvs, 6.35 ) was founded in
Lala (Radha ) by Vijaya’s father Sihabahu. Lala borders in the
north of the Kalihga kingdom, the home of Tilokasundari,
as must be inferred from Mhv., 6.1-5. The south-eastern
district of Chutea Nagpur to the west of Bengal is still called
Singbhum.”! It has however to be noticed that, in the age of
Vijayabahu (actually from about the end of the sixth to at least
about the beginning of the twelfth century), the name Kalihga
was exclusively applied to the kingdom of the Eastern Gahgas
of Kalihganagara near Srikakulam, who styled themselves as
Kaling-ddhipatL Siihhapura (modern Singupuram in the same
neighbourhood ) was, however, the eapital of the Kalinga-adhipatis
in the fourth and fifth centuries A..II). and was no longer the capital
of Kalihga although it may have been the residence of some scions
of the Ganga family. Radha and Kalihga do not appear to have
had contiguous boundaries in any period of history. Simhapura
in Radha (probably modern Singur in the Hooghly District of

I. CHlaiamsa, tram.. Part I, p. an.

opiiA

171

West Bengal) cannot be regarded as the same as the Kalinga
capital of that name^ identified with modern Singnpuram near
Srikakulam. The representation of Sirhhapura as the capital of
Kalinga in the Mahdvainsa tradition seems to be due to the fact
that the chronicle was composed about the fifth century while the
Culavarhsa appears merely to have continued the same tradition
even though the later capital of the country was at Kalinga-
nagara (modern Mukhalingam near iSrikakuIam ) and not at
Simhapura.^

As regards the north-eastern limit of ancient Kalinga , a well-
known passage in the Tirtha-yatra section of the Vana-parvan
(1 14.3 ) of the Mahdbhdrata has — e$a Kalingah Kaunteya yaira Vat--
tar am nadi. This shows that the river Vaitarani forming the eastern
border of the Cuttack District of Orissa was regarded in ancient
times as the boundary of the Kalinga country. Kalidasa’s
Raghuvarhsa (IV. 38 ) speaks of the Utkala country lying between
the land of the Kalifigas and that of the Vangas. The eastern
boundary of Utkala can be determined only when we know the
exact area inhabited by the Vanga people.

Early Greco-Roman writers represent the emperors of
the Nanda dynasty of Magadha as the rulers of the Prasii
and the Gangaridae and speak of Palibothra {i,e, Patali-
putra^ near modern Patna, Bihar) as the capital of the country of
the Prasii. There is little doubt that the Prasii represented the
Prdeyas {i.e. the people of the Eastern Division of ancient
Bharatavarsa ) of Indian literature. But there is some confusion
about the Gangaridae, their name being often Indianised as
Gangd-rdstra^ Ganga-radha and Gangd-hrdaya. Greek Gangaridae is
however the plural form of Gangarid from a base like Gauge or
Ganges; cf. Sassan — Sassanid — Sassantdae; Akhamenes — Akhamenid —
Akhamenidae. The word Gangaridae therefore means ‘the
Gangetic people’. The land inhabited by this people is clearly
indicated by the author of the Periplvs of the Erythraean Sea {circa
80 A.D. ) and the Geography of Ptolemy {circa 145 A.D. ).
Ptolemy^ mentions the five estuaries of the river Ganges and
says, ^'All the region about the mouths of the Ganges is occupied
by the Gangaridae with the following city — Gange, the royal city
{Le. the capital of the country).” It is clear from this that the

1 . Kalinga of the Ceylonese chronicles is sometimes identified with

Srivijaya ^Nicholas and Paranavitana, ^ History of Ceylon^ p. 198).

2. Geog^^ VII. I. 18 and 81. Sec Chapter XIII below.

172

GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIEiSTT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Gangaridae or Gangetic people received their name from their
chief city called Gange, apparently named after the river Ganges.
The Periplus (para. 63 ) however applies the name Ganges not
only to the river and a city standing on the bank of its principal
mouth but also to the country, of which the city was apparently
the capital. This book says about the country called Ganges
that ‘there is a river near it called the Ganges’ and that ‘on its
bank is a market-town which has the same name as the river
Ganges.’ The principal product of this country is stated to have
been the Gangetic muslin which reminds us not only of the
world-wide celebrity of the Dacca muslin in the medieval age,
but also of the dukula^ kau§ika^ patrorna and prdvara mentioned
in the Sabha-parvan of the Mahdbhdrata as presents made to
Yudhisthira by the Vahgas, Klalihgas, Tamaliptas and Pundras
of Eastern India.^ But a people called Gahga or Gahgeya
inhabiting Lower Bengal and having their capital at a city called
Gahga (Greek Gauge or Ganges ) is not known from ancient Indian
literature- This powerful people, known to foreign writers from
the fourth century B.G. to the second century A.D., were
apparently known to the Indians by a different name.
Curiously enough Kalidasa, who flourished in the fourth and
fifth centuries A-D., locates the Vahga people, well-known in
ancient Indian literature, exactly in the same region where the
Gangaridae or Gangetic people are placed by the early European
writers. Canto IV (verses 36-37) of his Raghuvamsa describes
how Raghu defeated the Vahgas in a naval battle and raised
pillars of victory in what is called Gangd-sroto-ntara no doubt in
the land of the defeated people. The expression Gangd-sroto-
^ntare^u has been explained by the celebrated commentator
Mallinatha as Gangdydh srotasdrh pravdhdndm— antaresu dvipe^uJ^
Thus the country of the Vahgas is located by Kalidasa in the
deltaic region of Southern Bengal, which is intersected by the
mouths of the river Ganges. This further proves that the Vahga
people were identical with the Gangaridae who, according to
the Greco-Roman writers, lived in the region about the mouths
of the Ganges and had their chief city about the confluence of
the Ganges and the Bay of Bengal. The modern representative

1, See IVCoticIiandra, Geog. JEc. Stud. JKdahdbh^^ PP* 1 12-13 •

2. Sec above, p. 132, note 7; below, Ch. XIII (pp. 213 flf.)

ODISA

173

of this ancient city seems to be the holy place at the junction
of the Gahga and the Sagara, called Sagara or Gahga-sagara.
The name Gangd^ suggested by the early Greco»Roman writers^
may be regarded as an eka-deia of the name Gangd-sagara.^ The
name Vahga, originally applied to wide areas of Southern
Bengal, came in the medieval age to be confined to the eastern
parts of that region together with the adjoining areas. But later
the name came to be used to indicate the whole of Bengal.

The above discussion will show that in the early centuries of
the Christian era, the Vangas lived in the deltaic region of
Southern Bengal watered by the mouths of the Ganges and had
their capital at the city of Gahga near the junction of the Bhagi*
rathi and the Bay of Bengal and that Gahga-sagar is the modern
representative of the ancient capital of the Vangas, After the
name of the capital, the country was also often called Gahga.
Early European writers mention the Vahgas as the Gangaridae,
i.e. the Gahga or Gahgeya people. The Greek name of the
Vahgas seems to be the result of a confusion the foreigners
made between the sounds of the two names Vangdh and Gangd.
The identification of the Vahgas and the Gangaridae and the
location of their habitat are clearly indicated by the evidence
supplied by Kalidasa^s Raghuvamia^ the Geography of Ptolemy
and the Periplus oj the Erythraean Sea, Ptolemy and Kalidasa
place the Gambyson or Kapisa river, identified with the
present Kasai running through the Midnapur District
(West Bengal ), about the western border of the country of the
Gangaridae or Vahga people. This is supported by the Jain
Prajndpand^ according to which Tamralipti in the present Tamluk
region of Midnapur once formed a part of the Vahga country.®
It appears therefore that the Gambyson or Kapisa^ i,e,^ the
modern Kasai, formed the boundary between the land of
the Vahgas and that of the Utkalas. Thus it may be said
that the Utkala country lay between the Kasai and the Vaitarani
rivers. Roughly speaking therefore, Utkala comprised the
present Balasore District of Orissa together with parts of the
Cuttack District of that State and of the Midnapur District of

1. See IHC, Bombay, 1947, pp* 91 ff.:, and below, Gh. XIII,

(pp. 213 flf.).

2, Raychaudhuri, Stud, hid, Ant.^ p. jS6

174 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

West Bengal. The Puri, Ganjam and Cuttack Districts of
Orissa then formed parts of the north-eastern area of the Kalihga
country,

A copper-plate inscription^ was discovered at Sumandala
near Khallikot in the Ganjam District. It records the grant
of a piece of land in the Khallikot area by a chief named Dharma-
raja in 569 A.D. The said chief acknowledged the suzerainty
of a king named Prthivivigraha who is stated to have been
ruling the Kalihga rd^tra as a nominal feudatory of the Gupta
emperors.^ This inscription shows beyond doubt that the south-
western part of coastal Orissa enjoyed the ancient name of
Kalihga as late as the second half of the sixth century A.D. Soon
however the name of the kingdom of the Vigraha dynasty, to
which Prthivivigraha belonged, had to be changed.

Another copper-plate inscription^ of the Vigraha dynasty
has been discovered in a locality in the Puri District. The
inscription records the gift of a village situated in Daksina-
Tosali in 599 A.D. by an independent monarch named Loka-
vigraha who was apparently one of the successors of Prthivi-
vigraha of the Sumandala plates. By this time, all vestiges
of Gupta suzerainty in Orissa were a thing of the past. But
what is more important is that Lokavigraha’s kingdom has been
mentioned in the epigraph as Tosali and not as Kalihga while
he is represented as granting a village in South Tosali. This
shows that Loka vigraha was not only holding sway over Daksina-
Tosali, but that he also claimed the lordship of Uttara-Tosali,
e. North Tosali. The inscriptions of the Bhauma-Karas of a
later age make it clear that the ancient Utkala country in the
Balasore region was roughly known as Uttara-Tosali while
Daksina-Tosali comprised the Ganjam-Puri-Guttack area.
We have to determine the reason leading to the introduction
of these names about the second half of the sixth century. This
however does not appear to be entirely unintelligible from
what we know of the history of Orissa in the period in
question.

1. Ep. Ind,. Vol. XXVIII, pp. 79-85.

2. Jain traditions seem to suggest that the Guptas ended their rule
in U.P. and Bihar in Gupta 231 (550 A.D.) and in Bengal and Orissa in
Gupta 255 (371 A.D.). See J.N* Sarkar Com. VoL, II, pp. 343 ff.

3. Ep.Ind.^ op. ciL, pp. 328 £f.

OpiSA

175

As already indicated above, shortly before 500 A.D*, the
Gahgas founded a kingdom about the present Srikakulam Dis-
trict of Andhra Pradesh. They assumed the title of Kaling-
adhipati^ "^lord of Kalihga% and had their capital at the city of
Kalihganagara situated in the vicinity of modern Srikaku|am.
The Vigrahas were holding sway over the Ganjam-Puri-Cuttack
area lying immediately to the north-east of the Gahga kingdom.
Naturally they wanted a new name for their own kingdom
to avoid confusion. The new name of their kingdom, viz-^
Tosali, seems to have been coined after the name of their capital
city. That is to say, the Vigrahas probably had their capital
at the ancient city of Tosali i.e, the modern Dhauli in the
Puri District. The name Tosali was also extended to the ancient
Utkala country probably due to the expansion of Vigraha power
over that area. These facts appear to supply the reason under-
lying the renaming of the south-western part of coastal Orissa
as Daksina-Tosali and the application of the alternative name
Uttara-Tosali to the country of the Utkalas. The names Uttara-
Tosali and Daksina-Tosali were popular in the age of the Bhauma-
Karas who flourished between the ninth and eleventh centuries.
Later however the name Tosali lost its popularity and the names
Utkala and Udra, Odra or Audra gradually came to be applied
to the whole of coastal Orissa and ultimately to the entire
Oriya- speaking area.

We have seen how the Utkalas lived in the present Balasore
District and its neighbourhood. But the original habitat of the
Udras cannot be determined. They are not mentioned in very
early works. Some manuscripts of the Manusmrti (about the
third century A.D. ; cf. X. 44) no doubt mention the Udras;
but many manuscripts of the work read in its place the name of
the Ahgas or Cholas,^ and either of these two may have been the
original reading. The Mdtya^dstra ascribed to Bharata-muni
mentions the people or land called Udra; but the work in its
present form does not appear to be much earlier than the sixth
century A.D.^ Whatever the antiquity of the name Udra may be,

1. Jha, Afanusmriti — jVotes^ Part I, p. 465.

2. Varahamihira’s BrihaUamhita (XIV), composed about the first
quarter of the 6th century, mentions the Udra people separately from the
Utkalas and Kalingas (cf. verses 6-8). The Alahdhhdyata mentions the Udra,
0 <^ra or Audra people. See Sorensen Index,

176 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

it is sometimes used to indicate the whole of coastal Orissa from
the sixth and seventh centuries A.D. Probably the Udras origi-
nally lived in the land lying to the north of the ancient Utkala
country- The conquest of Utkala by a king of the Udra country
may have led to the use of Udra as a synonym of U tkala and the
extension of the power of a king of this Udra»U tkala region over
the south-western part of coastal Orissa at a later date may have
been at the root of the use of both the names to indicate the
whole of coastal Orissa. The known facts of early Orissan history
appear to support this conjecture.

According to a copper-plate inscription^ discovered at Soro
in the Balasore District, in 579 A.D., Uttara-Tosali, i.e. ancient
Utkala, was under the rule of a Maharaja named Sambhuyasas
who belonged to the Mudgala or Maudgalya gotra. Another
inscription^ of the same monarch, viz. Paramabhattdraka Saihbhu-
yasas, which was found at Patiakella in the Cuttack District,
says that in 602 A.D. his feudatory, Maharaja Sivaraja, was ruling
in Daksina-Tosali. This record suggests further that the king
Sambhuyasas, ruler of both Uttara^ and Daksina-Tosali, i.e.
the entire coastal region of Orissa, was born in the Mana family.
The name of the present Manbhum or Manabhumi seems to have
been derived from the rulers of this Mana family, also known
from a few other records. The Bhauma-Kara monarch Santi-
kara II (middle of the tenth century) is known to have married
Hiramahadevi who was the daughter of king Siihhamana pro-
bably belonging to the same family as Saihbhuyasas. The Manas
appear to have been ruling over the present Manbhum-Sing-
bhum region together with the adjacent areas of Orissa.^

1. Ep, Ind,, VoL XXIII, pp. 1201 f.

2. Ihid., VoL IX, pp. 287 f

3 . It is not impossible that they had their capital at the city of IChijjihga,
modern Khiching in the northern part of the Mayurbhanj District of Orissa
(cf. Inly- Asian Cidture^ VoL VI II, 1958, pp 429-30). R.P. Chanda was inclined
to assign the earliest antiquities discovered at Khiching to the age of the Adi-
Bhahjas who began to rule from about the beginning of the eleventh century
A.D J-N. Banerjea assigns some of these sculptures to the tenth century and
others vaguely to the early medieval period. There is little doubt that some
Khiching sculptures are earlier than the eleventh century and this fact shows
that Khiching was the seat of some pre-Adi-Bhahja rulers, since the excellent
art of Khiching could have scarcely flourished without royal patronage.
Wc Have now inscriptions of the pre-Adi-Bhahja rulers, Dhruvaraja and

Opi^A

177

We have seen how in 569 A.D. Prthivivigraha was ruling
over Kalihga, i.e. the north-eastern areas of Kalihga roughly
identical with the later Dakslna-Tosali, and how in 599 A.D.
Lokavigraha, another monarch of the same family, not only
ruled over South Tosali, but also claimed lordship over North
Tosali. It has also been shown how Paramabhxittdraka Sambhu-
ya§as belonging to the Mudgala gotra and the Mana family
ruled over Uttara-Tosali, in 579 A. D. and over Daksina-
Tosali in 602 A.D. It is clear from these facts that in the latter
half of the sixth century there was a struggle between the
Vigrahas and the Manas for the sovereignty of coastal Orissa
and that the Vigrahas, who were at first ruling over the whole
of Tosali, both Uttara and Daksina, were gradually ousted
by the Manas, first from Uttara-Tosali and then from Daksina-
Tosali. In this way, the whole of coastal Orissa came under
the suzerainty of the Manas about the beginning of the seventh
century. If these Manas may be regarded as belonging to
the XJdra clan, we can explain the popularity of the name Udra
in the sense of the whole of coastal Orissa from the sixth or
seventh century* The fact that they conquered Utkala or
Uttara-Tosali sometime before the exapansion of their power
over Daksina-Tosali may be the reason underlying the use of
Udra as a synonym of Utkala first in the sense of the Balasore
region and then to indicate also the Cuttack-Puri-Ganjam area.
If the Mana family belonged to the Udra clan, it may be supposed
that the Udras originally lived in the Manbhum-Singhbhum
region and the adjoining parts of Orissa.

In the first quarter of the seventh century, the greatest
monarch in Eastern India was Sasanka, king of Gauda, who
had his capital at Karnasuvarna near modern Murshidabad in
West Bengal- The Gaud as ousted Mana rule from Orissa and
extended their suzerainty as far as Kongoda about the borders
between the Districts of Puri and Ganjam. In the second quarter
of the seventh century, the king of Gauda, probably a suc-
cessor of Sasanka, was disastrously defeated by Harsavardhana
of Kanauj and his ally, Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa. As a
result of this humiliation of the Gauda king, his Sailodbhava

Kumaravarman, who ruled in the area in the tenth century A.D. Cf. Ep,
Ind., VoL XXXIII, pp. 82 fF.

178

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

feudatories in Kongoda declared their independence while his
Datta feudatories in the Balasore- Cuttack region began to rule
scmi-independently. Some inscriptions of Somadatta and
Bhanu datta of this Datta dynasty have been discovered. It seems
that the dominions of these Dattas have been described as XJdra
by the Chinese pilgi'im Hiuen-tsang who visited Orissa about
638 A.D. His accounts appear to suggest that the pilgrim appli-
ed the name Udra to the Balasore-Guttack-Puri region. King
Harsavardhana^j who now probably regarded the Cauda king
as his subordinate ally, invaded Kongoda in 643 A.D. in order
to punish the iSailodbhavas on behalf of the Cauda monarch.

During the eighth century A.D., the iSailodbhavas conti-
nued their independent rule in Kongoda in the Puri-Canjam
region. But the political condition of the Balasore-Cuttack area
in this age is not quite clear. According to Chinese evidence^ a
Buddhist king having a name like Subhahkarasiihha ruled over
the Wu-ch^a or Udra country in 795 A.D.^ He seems to have
been a contemporary of the Later Sailodbhavas of the Ganjam-
Puri area and ruled over the Cuttack-Balasore region. In 831
A.D . 3 the Bhauma-Karas established their capital at the ancient
city of Viraja which is the modern Jajpur (Yayapura or Y^a-
pura). They founded a new city called Cuhesvarapataka or
Guhadevapataka in the suburbs of Jajpur and this remained
the Bhauma-Kara capital till the end of Bhauma-Kara rule
in the eleventh century. It was apparently the Bhauma-
Karas who overthrew Sailodbhava rule from Kongoda which
now formed a part of Daksina-Tosali.

The Somavarhsis established their power in the Patna-
Sonpur region in the Upper Mahanadi valley in the tenth century.
The Somavarnsi king Mahabhavagupta I Janamejaya (circa
935-70 A.D. ) issued most of his charters from Suvarnapura
(Sonpur). His son and successor, Mahasivagupta Yayati I
(circa 970-1000 A.D.) transferred his capital to the new city of
Yayatinagara (modern Binka ) built by and named after himself.
In the second quarter of the eleventh century, the Somavarnsi
king Mahasivagupta Yayati III Gandihara (circa 1025-60 A.D. )

5 * ^nd,, Vol. XV, pp. 363-64; Vol. XXIX, p. 84. A king

of Orissa named Subhakarasimha, who became a Buddhist' monk, is said
to have left India m 71 5 A.D. and reached China the following year when he
Was 80 years of age (A. Getty, Gane^a^ pp, 73-74).

OpiSA

179

extended his power over the coastal regions of Orissa. The story
of the transference of the lordship of that region from the
Bhauma-Karas to the Somavarhsis is not clearly known.^ But
there is little doubt that Yayati III built a city, named Yayati-
nagara after himself, in the erstwhile Bhauma-Kara kingdom.
This city is mentioned in the Mddald Pdnjl as Abhinava-Yayati-
nagara (z.e. the new Yayatinagara) in its description of the
Gahga kings who conquered coastal Orissa from the
Somavamsis, but had originally little to do with the
upper valley of the Mahanadi. The Gahga king Anahgabhima
III seems to be described in this work as Abhinava-Taydtinagara-
Vi§nu.^ The Muslim authors of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries mentioned the Gahga kingdom as Jajnagar (no doubt
a corruption of the name Taydtinagara) apparently after this
Abhinava- Yayatinagara of the Mddald Pdnjz^ which seems to
have continued to remain the capital of coastal Orissa under
the Gahgas for some time.

About the beginning of the twelfth century A.D., the
Gahga king Anantavarman Codagahga (1078-1147 A.D.) of
Kalihganagara conquered the Puri-Cuttack-Balasore region
from the Somavarhsis. There is evidence to show that his descen-
dants later transferred the Gahga capital to Cuttack. According
to the Nagari plates^ of Anahgabhima III {circa 121 1-38 A.D. ),
great-grandson of Anantavarman Codagahga, that king had
his headquarters at Abhinava-Varanasi-kataka, Le. the present
Barabati area of Cuttack. The Mddald Pdnjz seems to suggest
that Anahgabhima III at first had been residing at Caudvara-
kataka and later transferred his capital to Varanasi-kataka
built by himself on the site of the village of Barabati on the
opposite bank of the Mahanadi. As the Mddald Pdnjt uses the
name Abhinava- Yayatinagara in the description of this king, it
may be supposed that it was the earlier name of Cuttack, which
was therefore the source of the name Jajnagar used by the Muslim
writers of the early medieval period to indicate the Gahga king-
dom covering coastal Orissa. But it seems to us that Abhinava-
Yayatinagara or Jajnagar should better be identified with modern

I. See The Struggle for pp. 209-10.

2- Ed. Mahanti, p. 28. Tajah is pronounced Jajatt,
3. Ep, Ind., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 235 ff.

1 80 GEOORAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Jajpur. This is because Jajpur seems to be a corruption of the
name Yayatipura which is again practically the same as Yayati-
nagara, both meaning ^the city of Yayati". That Jajpur was
once the headquarters of the Imperial Gahgas seems to be sup-
ported by the following tradition in the description of Anahga-
bhima in some manuscripts of the Mddald Pdnji : rdjd Tdjapura-^
nagara caudvdre Katake vije kari thdnti?^ In the description of
the occupation of the Kesari {i.e. Somavarhsi) kingdom by
Anantavarman Codagahga also we have the passage : Ydjapura
Katake praneia hoildJ^

We have seen that the Bhauma-Kara emperors had their
capital at Viraja, i,e. modern Jajpur^ in the suburbs of which
they built their new capital named Guhesvarapataka or Guha-
devapataka. In the rule of coastal Orissa, these Bhauma-Karas
were succeeded by the Somavaihsi king Mahasivagupta Yayati
III Gandihara. It is possible to think that Yayati III retained
the headquarters of this newly acquired territory at its old capital
and that it was he who renamed Guhesvarapataka or Guhadeva-.
pataka after himself as Yayatinagara or Yayatipura. The very
name of modern Jajpur {Yayatipura^ Yaydipura'^ Ydyaipura'^ Ydyi^
pura^ Jajpur) appears to support this conjecture. It seems that
the capital of coastal Orissa was retained at the same city for
some time even after the overthrow of Somavarhsi rule from that
area by the Gahgas of Kalihganagara. If the Gahga conquerors
of coastal Orissa ruled the country from Yayatinagara or Yayati-
pura, modern Jajpur, before the transference of its headquar-
ters to the Cuttack region, we can easily explain why the
Muslim writers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries men-
tioned the kingdom of the Gahgas in Orissa as Jajnagar (Yayati-
nagara ).

About 1360 A.D., during the reign of the Gahga king Bhanu
III {circa 1352-78 A.D. ), Sultan Firuz Shah of the Tughluk
dynasty of Delhi led an expedition against the Gahga capital.
An account of this expedition is found in the Tdrikh-i-Firuz Shdht
by Shams-i-Siraj *Afif. In this work, the kingdom of the Gahga
monarch has been called Jajnagar, but his capital has been
mentioned as Varanasi, i.e, Varanasi-kataka which is the present

I. Makanti, op» cit.^ p. 34 .
2 * Ibid.:, p. 132.

ODUSX

181

Barabati area of Cuttack,^ It seems that, if the earlier name
of Cuttack was Yayatinagara and if that was the reason for the
early Muslim writers applying the name Jajnagar to the Ganga
kingdom, Shams-i-Siraj would not have used two different
names to indicate the capital and kingdom of the Ganga king
without any comment. Indeed it becomes rather dijfficult in
that case to understand why he uses the new name for the city,
but its old name to indicate the kingdom of which it was the
capital. The description of the Ganga capital and kingdom in
the Tdrikh-i’-Ftruz Shdhi seems to suggest that Jajnagar as the
name of the Ganga kingdom had nothing to do with Varanasi
or Cuttack which was then its capital.^

Muslim rule was established in the western and northern
parts of Bengal about the beginning of the thirteenth century.
From that time, the Muslim rulers of Bengal often led expedi-
tions against the Ganga kingdom. This may have been the
cause underlying the transference of the Ganga capital from
Jajnagar or Jajpur, which was nearer the borders of
the Muslim territories of Bengal, to Cuttack which lay
further away. But the Muslim writers appear to have conti-
nued the use of the name Jajnagar to indicate the Ganga king-
dom for some time even after the transference of the Ganga
headquarters from the city of that name. The name Kataka
or Cuttack suggests that it was originally a camping ground of
the Ganga king’s forces. It is not impossible that the story of
the Ganga king’s attempt to check Muslim aggression from the
east is hidden under this name of the new capital of his kingdom.

In the seventh century A-D., the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-
tsang visited, among numerous territories, in the course of his
travels in the Indian subcontinent, the two countries called
(1) Wu-chang-na in the valley of the river Su-p’o-fa-su-tu in
the north-west and (2 ) Wu-t’u on the shore of the ocean in the

1. Sea Rp, InL, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 247-4B.

2. It has to be noticed in this connection that the transfer of the
capital from Jajnagar to Cuttack seems to have led to the separate mention
of Jajnagar and Orissa among the conquests of *Alauddm Husain Shuh
(1493-1519 A.D. ) in 1493-94 A.D. Gf. H. N. Wright, Cat. C Ind, Aius.^
Vol II, pp, 144, 173 '

1 82 GSOGI^APHY of ancient and medieval INDIA

east.^ There has been no doubt that Wu-chang-na lay in the
Swat (Suvastu) valley in the present West Pakistan while
Wu-t'u is the same as Udra or Odra, Le, modern coastal Orissa.
The two geographical names are found in Tibetan sources as
(1) O-rgyan, U-rgyan or O-di-ya-na, and (2) O-di or O-di-
vi-sa, while the first name is found as Yue-ti-yen in the T’ang
annals which locate the territory to the south-east of Ghitral
and to the north of the Indus.2 It has been rightly identified
with the land called Odiyana, Uddiyana, etc., in Sanskrit
literature, a Buddhist monk of the place being mentioned in a
Mathura inscription of the year 77 of the Kaniska era, which
probably corresponds to 155 A.D.^

There can really be no confusion between Uddiyana and
Odra (Orissa ) although a few writers even now regard the two
names as identical and as referring to Orissa.^ This is because
these writers consider the important evidence referred to above
less convincing than certain doubtful traditions.^ It is how-
ever not usually noticed that the confusion between Uddiyana
and Orissa is a legacy of the early medieval period. Uddiyana
does not appear to have been so familiar to some of the writers
of that age as Odra, etc., so that the less known was replaced
by the well-known exactly as in the case of the substitution of
Varhksu (the Oxus) by Sindhu (the Indus) in Kalidasa^s Raghu-
vamsa, IV. 67.®

The Kdlikd Purdna^ probably incorporated originally in the
Rudraydmala Tantra^ is believed by scholars to have been com-
piled in Assam sometime before 1000 A.D.*^ This work recog-
nises the following four Pltha-sthdnas : Odra or Uddiyana in the

1. Watters, On Tx^an Chwang* s 'Travels in India, Vol. I, pp. ;

VoL II, pp. 193 fF. ; Beal, Buddhist Records of the Westein World, Calcutta
reprint, Vol- II, pp. iGGlT.; Vol. IV, pp. 410 fF.

2. L6vi, Journal Asiaiigue, 1915, pp. 105 fl ^ Bagchi, Studies tn the Tantras,,
pp, 37 fF.

3. Liider’s List, No- 62.

4. Cf. Bagchi, loc. cit.; Sircar, The Sdkta Plthas, p. 12, note 3.

5. Bagchi, loc, cit,

6. The name of the Vaihksu is found in Vallabha’s commentary while
Maliinatha and others have Sindhu instead.

7. Cf, Journal of Oriental Research^ Vol. X, pp. 289 fF. ; Journal of the
Orissa Academy^ Vol. II, p. 60; Hazra, Studies tn the Puramc Records on
Hindu Rite^ and Customs, p. 53; Sircar, The iSdkta Pithas, p. 12, note 5;
p. 17, note 4-

OpiSA

183

west, Jalasaila or J^andhara in the north, Purnagiri in the
south and Kamarupa-Kamagiri in the east. Of the two sections
on this topic, the first speaks of the western Pitha as Odra the
place of Jagannatha, the Odresa^ and Katyayani-Siva, the
Odresimri^ while the second mentions Uddiyana as the seat
of Katyayani in place of Odra.« Since this confused Odra«
Uddiyana has been located in the western part of the Indian
subcontinent and not in the east or south, the intended country
cannot really be Orissa.

There is moreover clear evidence in Indian literature to
show that Orissa was different from Uddiyana. The geographi-
cal name written as Orissa in English is spelt as Odiid in the
language of the Oriyas. This form seems to have been derived
from Audrlya-vi§aya through intermediate forms like Oddi-visaa
(cf. Tibetan Odi-^visa referred to above ).^ In medieval Sanskrit
literature, Orissa is sometimes called UddUa^ which looks like
re-Sanskritised from OdUa.

The Jndndrnava Tantra which was composed considerably
earlier than the sixteenth century A.D., contains two lists of
Pitka-sthdnas, one enumerating only eight and the other no less
than fifty names. ^ The second of these two lists is also found
in the Tantracuddmani as well as in Brahmananda’s Sdktdnanda-‘
tarangini.^ It is again closely followed in a section of Krsna-
nanda Agamavagisa’s TantrasdraJ

1. See Vangavasi ed., p. 410;

O dt ’•akhyam piathamam pltham d^tiixaih Jdlaiuilukatn i
irtxyam P urnapltham tu Kdmarupam caturlhakam U
O dra~pltham paictme tu *ath~aiz'=^ Od^edzatim Sizdm *

Kdtyayamm Jagandtha,n-=^Odresan^ca pmpujayet U

2. Ibid,,pp. 79“8o :

De-oik ate pdda-yugmam praihamam nyapatat^ksitau i
Uddiydue c^oru-yugmani hiidya jagatdm iatak
Katyayani c= Oddly dne Kdmdkkyd Kamm iipml\pakt j ^

Purnesvart Purzjaghau Candt Jdlandhara^girau U

3. See above, p. 167.

4. Sircar, "The Sakta Pithas, p- 97, s.i\

5. Ibid,y pp. 18, 20-21 ; sec also yndndivtua Tantra^ .Vnandasrama ed.
Patalas V (verses 66-67) and XIV.

6. Sircar, The Sakta PithaSy p- 21, note i.

7. /W., p, 23, note 3.

184 GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT ANT) MEDIEVAL INDIA

This list has the following two stanzas:

(1) Pitham—Ujjayinm= aiva vicitrarh K?irik-abhidham 1
Hcistinapura-pithan = ca UddUan=ca Praydgakam "

(2) Mahendrarh Vdmanan= c== aiva Hiranyapuram = eva ca 1
Mahalak?mipura-pitham — U ddiyanam — atah par am • i

The separate mention of Uddisa (Orissa) and Uddiyana
(Uddiyana ) in the same list of Pitha'^sthanas contained in a well-
known popular text of medieval India shows beyond doubt that
the two cannot be identical even if the Chinese and Tibetan
evidence regarding the location of Uddiyana in the Swat valley
is considered unsatisfactory by some in spite of the fact that
it has completely satisfied a large number of scholars.

Chapter XI

JOASARNA. ASMARA ANI> KUNTALA

Our attention has been drawn to a verse contained in
Laksmidhara^s Krtyakalpataru^ which refers to a pious lady named
Vasundhara who was the daughter of a certain Vikrama and
was an inhabitant of Oasarna.^ In this connection, several
suggestions have been offered; but none of them is supported by
any evidence or argument of any kind. Vikrama has been iden-
tified with Gandragupta II Vikramaditya and Vasundhara with
Frabhavatigupta, daughter of Ghandragupta II and queen of
Vakataka Rudrasena II. We wonder why the daughter of any
person of the name of Vikrama has to be identified with the
only known daughter of only one of the numerous Vikramas
known to history.

The suggestion that the Vakataka territory was known as
Dasarna which is identified with the Ghattisgarh Oivision of M.
P. as well as the reference to ^Kyj^a-Dasanapura in the Andhra
country mentioned in some inscriptions as the capital of a Vaka-
taka principality’ in JayaswaPs History of India^ p. 136, is also
untenable. Here is a clear case of the andha-parampard-’Tydya^
as Dasanapura, mentioned as a seat of government of the Early
Pallavas (who, it should be noted, ruled contemporaneously
with the Vakatakas) and identified by scholars with modern
Oarsi in the Nellore District, had absolutely nothing to do with
the Vakatakas- As a matter of fact, there is not the slightest
evidence of Vakataka rule in the Ghattisgarh region of M. P.,
the ancient name of which was, moreover, Kosala (South
Kosala) and never Dasarna. From numerous references to
Dasarna in Indian literature,^ it is clear that it was one of the
old names of East Malwa and the adjoining region, with its capi-

1, See D- B. Diskalkar in Vol. XX, 1944^ PP- s6y~6S,

2. Gf., Meghaduta^ 24-25.

186

BASARNA ASMARA AND KUNTALA

tal at Vidisa (modern Besnagar near Bhilsa^, Madhya Pradesh )
and with the rivers Dasarna (modern Dhasan ) and Vetravati
(modern Betwa) running through it.

In this connection^ the attention of scholars may be
drawn to another almost equally unjustifiable theory that the
Vakataka territory was known as Kuntala.^ It is easy to
show that the heart of the Vakataka kingdom corresponded
to the ancient janapada of Vidarbha (modern Berar and the
adjoining regions) where most of the recoi'ds of the family
have been discovered. The founder of the Vakataka family
seems to have had something to do with East Malwa and the
Vindhyan region and a few other members of the main
branch of the family probably held sway over parts of Central
India (especially Bundelkhand) after the eclipse of Gupta
power in that area.^ But the capital of a branch of the Vakataka
line was at the city of Vatsagulma, modern Basim in the Akola
District, while the main branch of the family ruled from a place
not very far away from modern Nagpur.^ The Vakataka kings
reigned in Vidarbha from the second half of the third century
to the first half of the sixth. They were not only responsible for
some of the magnificent caves at Ajanta; but it was apparently
at their court that the celebrated Vaidarbhi riti or the Berar
style of Sanskrit composition originated and flourished and was
recognised by the author of the Kdvyddar^a as the best style as
early as the seventh century A.D. We have elsewhere suggested
that the other important style known as the Gaudi riti has to be
associated with the court of the dynasty of Gauda kings repre-
sented by Gopacandra and jSasanka.*^

In connection with the name Dasarna, it is interesting to
note that the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea^ place *the region of
Dosarene yielding the ivory known as Dosarenic'' towards the
east of Masalia {i.e. the country around Masulipatam in Andhra ).

I. Gf. The Successors of the Sdtavdhanas^ I939> P- 253 , note.

2- Cf, The Age of Imperial Unity ^ p. 217.

3. See The Cltssical Age^ pp. 181-82, 185.

4. Cf. above, pp. 125 ff. For the Udicya, Praticya, Ddksindtya and
Gauda styles of composition, see also Sana’s Harsacarita, 1 . 7.

5. See Schoff’s trans., p. 47.

t>ASARNA ASMAKA. AND KUNTAlA

187

Ptolemy mentions the city of Dosara^ apparently as the metro-
polis of this land. He locates Dosara in the land of the Kok-
konagai who lived to the west of the country watered by the
mouths of the Ganges. Some scholars trace the Indian name
Dasarna in Dosarene.^ But it is impossible to locate the places
mentioned by the Greek authors outside modern Orissa. It
seems that Dosara is a modification of the Indian name Tosala
(the same as Tosali or Tosala), identified with modern Dhauli in
the Puri District. In early times, Tosali was the capital of the
Kalihga country,

A Rastrakuta ruler named Manahka (who seems to have
originally been a rastrakuta or subdi visional ruler) is known
from the Undikavatika grant^ of his great-grandson Abhimanyu
who resided at Manapura. He has been identified with king
Manahka, grandfather of Avidheya who issued the Pandu-
rangapalli grant discovered in the neighbourhood of Kolhapur,
There is reason to believe that the territories over which these
rulers held sway lay in the Kolhapur region and the adjoining
area of the South Maratha country, and Mirashi may
be right in identifying their capital with Man in the Satara
District. Rastrakuta Bibhuraja of the Hingniberdi plates,
Dejja-maharaja of the Gokak plates, and Govindaraja, son of
iSivaraja, who is known from the Naravana grant of 743 A.D.
of the time of Vikramaditya II and seems to have been the sub-
ordinate ruler of a territory in the Satara-Ratnagiri region, may
have been scions of this family.^ The land ruled by this family
seems to have been known as ^Mana’s territory.

The Pandurangapalli charter® appears to describeMananka,

1. Geography, VIII- i. 77.

2. Gf. JAS, Letters, Vol. XVI, p. 266; SchofF, The Pertplm, trans.,
P- 253.

3. Ep^ Ind., Vol. VIII, pp. 165 f,

4. Gf. ibid., Vol. XXIX, pp. 174 Vol. XXI, pp. 289 The

Classical Age, p. 199. Svaraja’s son Govindaraja is described as the grands
of Nannappa in the Salem plates (Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, pp. 145 ff. },

5. See below, pp. 193 - 94 -

6 . Gf. ABORT Vol. XXV, pp. 3^ ff*.

188 GEOGRAPHV OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA.

who probably flourished in the latter half of the fifth century,
as the conqueror of Vidarbha and Asmaka and also as the
chastiser {prasantd) of the Kun talas. The Kuntala people
under reference were no doubt the Kadambas of Vanavasi
(Banavasi), whose territories comprised the North Karnara
District and parts of Mysore, Belgaum and Dharwar. In the
inscriptions of the Later Kadambas, the progenitor of the
Kadamba family (sometimes called Mayuravarman, but in some
cases Mukkana or Trilocana Kadamba) is represented as the
ruler of the Kuntala country which is described as the land
round the capital city of Banavasi in the North Kanara District.
The country of Vidarbha lay on both sides of the river Varada
(modern Wardha, a tributary of the Godavari) according to
the Mdlavikagnimitra, and roughly corresponded to the major
part of Berar and the western part of M. P. Its ancient capital
was at the city of Kundina which has been identified with
modern Kaundinyapura on the Wardha in the Chandur Taluk
of the Amaravati District of Berar. The city of Padmapura, which
was the birth-place of the poet Bhavabhuti and was situated in
the Vidarbha country in Daksinapatha, has been rightly identi-
fied with modern Padampur near the Amgaon railway station
in the Bhandara District of M. P. Vidarbha therefore included
at least the Amaravati region in the west and the Bhandara area
in the east. Epigraphic evidence shows that, about the time
of Mananka, the above land was entirely in the possession of
kings belonging to the main branch of the Vakataka family that
had its headquarters near modern Nagpur. Thus it will be seen
that the Pandurangapalli grant seems to represent Mananka
of the south Maratha country as having fought successfully with
the Kadambas of Kuntala and the Vakatakas of Vidarbha.

But who were the Asmakas, also mentioned in connection
with the victorious campaigns of the Rastrakuta ruler ? It appears
to us that the Asmakas under reference are no other than the
Vakatakas of Vatsagulma which is mentioned separately from
Vidarbha in th.& Kamos iitr a (V. 5. 33-34). The capital city of this
branch of the Vakataka family has been identified with modern
Basim in the Akola District about the southern fringe of Berar;
but their dominions certainly included the Ajanta region in the
Aurangabad District and very probably also Nandikata, identi-
fied with the Nander District, both in the northern part of the old

DASARNA AbMAKA AND KUNTAI-A

189

Hyderabad State. The Vaka takas of Vatsagulma therefore
ruled over the southernmost region of Berar and the northern
part of old Hyderabad^ and the ancient Asmaka country has been
located by scholars precisely in this region^

The Pdrayana^ incorporated in the Suttanipdta^ speaks of
a sage named Bavari who was an inhabitant of Sravasti, but
settled ‘'in the country of Asmaka^ in the vicinity of Mulaka^ on
the bank of the Godavari/ ^ While describing the journey of
Bavari’s disciples from the sage’s hermitage in Asmaka to a
locality in Northern India, the same work says that the first
place reached was Pratisthana (modern Paithan on the Goda-
vari in the Aurangabad District) which was the capital of the
Mulaka country ; the men are said to have next reached
Mahismati on the Narmada, and then UjjayinI outside the
limits of Daksinapatha. This shows that the Asmaka country
lay immediately to the south of Mulaka which is the Paithan
region of the Aurangabad District. The ancient capital of
the Asmaka country was, according to the Mahdbhdraia^ at
the city of Paudanya which is known as Potana {Podanna^
Paudanya ) in the Pali literature . A variant of the form Potana
is Potali which seems to be a mistake for Potana or Potani (cf. the
striking similarity between the forms of the two letters I and n at
some stages of development), the latter being a possible corrup-
tion of Paudanya through another intermediate form Podaniya.^
Raychaudhuri identifies Paudanya with modern Bodhan near
the Godavari in the Nizamabad District abutting on the Nander
District in the old Hyderabad State. In a narrow sense there-
fore the Asmaka country may be identified with the Nander-
Nizamabad region of Andhra Pradesh and the adjoining area,
In ancient literature, however, Asmaka is often represented as
including Mulaka, i.e. the Paithan area of the Aurangabad
District, and as abutting on Kali nga (roughly speaking, the coas-
tal land between the Mahanadi and the Godavari), Vidarbha,
Aparanta (the Northern Konkan) and Avanti, doubtless the
celebrated Avanti-Daksinapatha with its capital at Mahismati

1. Of. PHAI, pp. 7 G, 2I-.32 ; xnip. VoL \ I, p. TS; JAHRS, Vol.
IX, iii, p. I fF.

2. See the Chapter on Gonarda (Ch. XIX) below.

3. Gf. sdkya^sdkiya—mki^i mulya ^muhya—muh; drogya==^ drogyia=^
arogi^ etc. in my Gram. Prak. Lang.y p. 23.

190

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

on the Narmada, identified with Mandhata in the Nimar
District or Maheswar in the former Indore State. This wider
sense must have been in the mind of Bhattasvamin when he
identified Asmaka with Maharastra, i. e. the Maratha country.
But the heart of this land appears to have been the northern
districts of old Hyderabad including naturally the southernmost
region of Berar. The heart of the ancient Asmaka country thus
seems to have corresponded to the dominions of the Vakatakas
of Vatsagulma. Rastrakuta Manahka therefore claimed victory
not only over the Kadambas of Kuntala and the Vakatakas of
Vidarbha, but also over the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakataka
dynasty of Asmaka.

Ill

There have been some comments^ on our views regarding
the identification of the Kuntala and Asmaka countries.^ An
attempt has been made to prove that ^Kuntala in ancient times
did not comprise only the North Kanara District and parts of
Mysore, Belgaon and Dharwar Districts as stated by Dr. Sircar,
but that it extended much further to the north so as to include
what we now call the Southern Maratha Country.’ Unfor-
tunately it has not been noticed that practically the same view
has been expressed by many writers including Fleet® and
ourselves.^ The fact is that where other scholars would locate,
according to evidence, the Kuntala country proper in the
heart of the Kannadiga area and distinguish between that land
and the later empire (often called Kuntala) of the imperial
Kuntala or Karnata(f.^. Kannadiga) dynasties, our critic would
place Kuntala proper in the Maratha country and would not
distinguish the essential Kuntala country from the gigantic
Kuntala or Kannadiga empire of later times. If, in the days of
Warren Hastings, the Banaras District formed a part of Bengal,
would it justify any one to identify Bengal with Banaras or to
locate Bengal in Banaras ? The name Vahgala (Bengal) origi-
nally indicated a small district in Southern Bengal; it was later

I. See V. V. Mirashi in IHd, Vol. XXII, pp. 309-15.
Gf. ibid,., p. 233 fT.

3. Bomb. Vol. I, Part ii, p. 43 1-

4. Sue. Sat., p- 215. Gf. below, p. 246 and note 1.

DASAR:r^-A AS^IAKA AND KUNTALA

191

used to signify the whole country comprising such ancient lands
as Vahga, Samatata, Suhma, Tamralipta, Gauda and Pundra-
vardhana. Can we locate the ancient Vahgala country in any
part of the later Vahgala (Bengal ) we like ?

Most of the questions raised in this connection were al-
ready answered in our Successors of the Sdtavdhanas referred to
above. It will be clear from the following quotations from
that work :

‘"Cf. a record of A.D. 1077 : ^In the centre of that

middle world is the Golden Mountain to the south of which is
the Bharata land in which, like the curls of the lady earth, shines

the Kuntala country to which an ornament is Banavasi.’

Some other inscriptions also prove that Kuntala was the district
round Banavasi/"^

Kuntala and Karnata are used as synonymous in the
Vikramdhkadevacarita by Bilhana.**^ Vikramaditya VI has been

called both Kuntalendu (or, Kuntalendra) and Kartmtendu

Vaija^anti, identified with Banavasi, has been described as a
tilaka (that is to say, the capital ) of the Karnata country in the

Birur grant of Visnuvarman Karnata therefore signified

the same territory as Kuntala or the country of which Kuntala
formed a part. .... .The separate mention of Kuntala, Karnata
Banavasi, Mahisaka (cf. Mahisa-visaya in a Kadamba grant),
etc., in some of the traditional lists may possibly refer to the fact
that these names originally, signified separate geographical units
abutting on one another. Sometimes however one of them may
have formed the part of another ; cf. the case of Tamralipta

1. The tradition about Banavasi having been the capita I of the Kuntala
countrv was remembered even after the foundation of the Kuntala-Kariiata
(Kannadiga) empire. For a tenth century record mentioning the Kuntala
king residing at Vana dsa, indicating the city as well as ^exile% see Ep, Ind ,
Vol. XXII, p. 1*^2 It has to be remembered that, in the age in question
the capital of the said empire was at Mitikhed in the Gulbarga District,
Mysore.

2. Note that the Calukyas of Badami \Ep, Ind , Vol. IV, p. 88^ etc.)
and Kalyana {ibid., Vol. V, p- i6, etc.) were regaided as kings of Kuntala,
while the Galukya army was called the Karnataka bala (Ind. Ant,^ Vol.
XI, p. 1 1 2, etc.). In Cola records like the Kanyakumari inscription {Ep,
Ind., Vol. XVIII, p. 27; vv 6q, 76) the Galukya enemies of Rajendra I
are mentioned as lords of the Kuntalas, while the inscriptions of Virarajendra
mention them as kings of the Karnata family.

192 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

which is mentioned in literature as an independent state, as a
part of Suhma and also as a part of Vaiiga; also the case of
Taxila (Raychaudhuri, Stud. Ind. Ant., pp. 186 f. ). With the
rise of Kanarese powers like the Galukyas and the Rastrakutas,
the name Karnata (sometimes also the name Kuntala ) extended
over a large part of the Western and Southern Deccan. In the
Kaluigattuparani, the Galukyas have been descibed as the Kun-
talar, ‘lords of Kuntala’ (literally, ‘the Kuntalas,’ indicating
their Kanarese origin). . . .An inscription of Harihara II dated
in Saka 1307 ... . . .says that Vijayanagara (modern Hampi in
the Bellary District ) belonged to the Kuntala vi?aya of the Kar-
nata country.”

Only a few words are required now to be added to the
above. As Vidarbha and Vatsagulma are separately mentioned
in the Kamos utra, our critic thinks that the former included the
latter and that they are separately mentioned according to the
Mathara-Kaundinya nyaya. It will be clear from the extracts
quoted from our book that we would partially apply the same
Kiydya to explain the separate mention of Vanavasi and Kuntala
in the MaMbhdrata and the Vdyu Purdna on which the critic takes
his stand. The DaJakumdracarita and the Kdvyamimdmsd were
composed in an age when the name Kuntala was often applied
to the Kannadiga empire of the Galukyas and their successors,^
which usually included the Kuntala country proper. The
separate mention of Banavasi indicating Kuntala proper and
Kuntala signifying the Kannadiga empire in these works has
nothing to do with the critic’s location of the Kuntala country
proper in the South Marathi, country.

The critic suggests that the root Ms or prcdds means govern-
ing when the object is a territory and chastising when the object
is a living being and that, in the passage Mimat-Kuntaldndrh
prasdsitd, the word praSdsitd means a ruler because the object of
prasas in this case is not a living being but the Kuntala country.
Unfortunately, he does not notice that even if the distinction in
the meaning of the verb is conceded, there is absolutely no
reason why Kuntala (like SuTa^tTa in verse 1 1 of the Jfunagadh
inscription of Skandagupta) should be taken in the sense of the
Kuntala country (an inanimate object) and not in that of the

I. See Sue. p. 2x6, note i.

DASARINTA ASiVIAiCA AND KUNTAI.A

193

K-Untala people. There can certainly be no objection if
Kuntalandm prasdsitd is translated as 'the chastiser of the illustri-
ous Kuntala people.’^

We do not subscribe to the critic's identification of the
Rsika country with Khandesh. Sylvain Levi rightly regards
Rsika as the southernmost country in Gautamiputra Satakarni's
empire, to the south of Asmaka.^ According to the reading of
the Hathigumpha inscription preferred by Barua and ourselves,
the city of Rsikanagara (capital of the Rsika country) was situa-
ted on the Krsnabena (KLrsna). As regards the critic's identi-
fication of Asmaka with the Ahmadabad and Bhir Districts, it is
really impossible for us to understand why the Nander-
Nizamabad region lying immediately to the east of that area
could not be included. We consider Raychaudhuri’s indenti-
ficatlon of Paudanya, the Asmaka capital, with Bodhan in the
Nizamabad District as exceptionally satisfactory and suggest
that even the Ahmadabad-Bhir area or parts of it may have been
included in the Asmaka country and in the dominions of the
Vakatakas of Vatsagulma. Nothing more can be said in the
present state of our knowledge. As however the Vakatakas of
Vatsagulma are known to have ruled over the northern part of
the old Hyderabad State, which is the ancient Asmaka country
proper according to many writers including Raychaudhuri and
ourselves, they may have been regarded as the lords of Asmaka.
As regards the inclusion of Vatsagulma in Vidarbha, sugges-
ted by writers like Rajasekhara (about the beginning of the
tenth century), we may draw the critic's attention to what
has been said about Tamralipta and Taksasila in the extracts
quoted from our book. Vatsagulma, like those localities,
appears to have been sometimes a separate state, sometimes a
part of Asmaka and sometimes a part of Vidarbha. It is well-
known thatMulaka or the land round Pai than in the Auranga-
bad District was sometimes a separate country, but was often
regarded as a part of Asmaka.

The country round the city of Manapura, founded by
Mananka, appears to have been known in the early medieval

I. Gf. below .Chapter XIX«

194 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

period as Mana-desa which included modern Velapur about
eleven kos to the west of Pandharpur (possibly the same as
Pandurangapalii mentioned in the record of Manahka’s grand-
son Avidheya) in the Sholapur District of the South Maratha
country. Gf- Isddnadeia-sambaddha-Velapura^ M.dnadeia-sambaddha-
sarvddhikdrt Brakmadeva-rdna^ etc., in the three Velapur inscrip-
tions (1300 and 1305 A.D.) of the Yadava king Ramacandra
of Devagiri in G.H. Khare’s Sources of the Medieval History of the
Dekkan^ Vol. I, pp. 78-80; VoL II, p. 9. In that case^ the domi-
nions of the Rastrakutas of Manapura comprised parts of the
Ratnagiri, Satara and Sholapur Districts of Bombay.

The name of this land reminds us of the former District
of Manbhum (i.e. Manabhumi) in the south-western border of
Bihar. As we have elsewhere^ suggested, the Manas who gave
their name to this area probably ruled over a big kingdom
covering parts of the Manbhum and Singhbhum regions of
Bihar and of the Mayurbhanj District of Orissa and having its
headquarters at Khijjihga (modern Khiching) in the northern
part of the Mayurbhanj District.

I. See above, pp. 187-88.

Chapter XII

KAMBOJA, PANCLALA ANI> MALAVA

There has been considerable speculation on the location of
the country of the well-known Kamboja people in the Uttara-
patha division of ancient Bharatavarsa. Wilson located it In
the Ghazni region to the south of Kabul/ and N. IL. Dey in
^Afghanistan, at least its northern part’/ Kalhana’s Rdjataran-
gint (IV. 165-66) mentions the Kambojas along with the
Tukharas of the upper Oxus valley including Balkh and Badakh-
shan, and Stein identifies the Kamboja country with the eastern
part of Afghanistan/ H. G. Raychaudhuri places this land in
the areas extending from Rajauri to the south of Kashmir in
the east to Kafiristan in Eastern Afghanistan in the west/
Among recent writers on the subject, Lassen’s location of the
Kambojas in the Ghalcha- speaking areas of the Pamirs has been
accepted by many,^ while G. A. Lewis has supported the location
of the people in Kafiristan/

The evidence in favour of the various suggestions lacks
definiteness with the exception of the theory of Raychaudhuri
who draws our attention to a passage in the M^ahdbhdrata (VII.
4. 5 ), according to which Karna defeated the Kambojas at
Rajapura. Raychaudhuri identifies this Rajapura with Rajauri
mentioned as Ho-lo-she-pu-lo (Rajapura) by Hiuen-tsang/
Unfortunately the evidence loses its definite character if the
expression rajapura in the Mahdbkdrata is understood in the sense
of rdjadhdnl or the capital city of Kambojas. Even otherwise,

1. JASB, 1838, pp. 252, 267.

2. Geog, Diet., s. v.

3- KaJhana's Kdjatarangini^ Vol. I, p. 136, notes,

4. Pol, Hist. Anc. Ind,, 1938, pp. 125 AT.

5. Gf. Parana, Vol. V, ISFo. i, p- 172; see also Jayachandra, Bharat”
bhumi aur uske JVivdsi, Samvat 1987, pp. 297 AT,; Motichandra, Geo^. Peon.
Stud,, 1945, pp* 32 ff*; V. S. Agrawala, India as known to Pdr,inn, 1953, pp.
48-49 ; etc.

6 . Purdria, Vol- IV, No- i, pp. 133 f.

7. Watters, On Tuan Chwang^s Travels in India, Vol. I, p. 284.

196 geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

the identification of Raj apura of the Mahdbhdrata with Rajauri
cannot possibly be regarded as certain.

The most significant fact about the mention of the Kamboja
people in the early literary and epigraphic records of India is
that they are usually associated with the Yavanas and often
with both the Yavanas and Gandharas. Among the Rock
Edicts of the great Mauiya emperor Asoka (third century B.G. ),
Rock Edict V has Yavana-Kamboja-Gandhara,^ while we have
Yavana-Kamboja in Rock Edict XIII with the omission of
Gandhara.2 The Alahdbhdrata (XII. 207, 43) agrees with
Asoka’s Rock Edict V in mentioning Yauna (Yavana )-Kam-
boj a-Gandhara.

The Assalayanasutta of the Buddhist canonical work
Majjhimanikdya (43. 1.3) not only speaks of Yavana-Kamboja,
but also says that the same social system prevailed in the western
countries including the lands of the Yavanas and Kambojas.
It is stated that in the areas in question, instead of the catur^
varna^ there were only two social grades, viz. the nobleman
and the serf.® A similar information is supplied by Rock Edict
XIII of Asoka which says, ‘^‘There is no country except the
land of the Yavanas where these classes do not exist, viz. the
Brahmanas and the Sramanas."*’-* According to the Harivamsa
(L 14. 16) and a number of the Puranas,^ another custom
peculiar to the Yavanas and Kambojas was that both had
shaven heads.

The above facts suggest that the Kambojas were intimately
associated with the Yavanas and the Gandharas, particularly
with the former, and it may be supposed that all three of them
lived in contiguous areas of XJttarapatha in the age of the
Mauryas. But the Asokan records speak sometimes of the
Yavanas alone, sometimes of the Yavanas in the company of
the Kambojas or of the Kambojas and the Gandharas. There
is no doubt that the inscriptions give prominence to the Yavanas

1. Hultzsch, C/ 7 , Vol. I, pp 191-92.

2. Ibid ,^ p. 21 1 .

grot =gr I i

4. Hultzsch, op, cjf , p. 209.

5. See, c. g., Vdju PufdtM^ 88, 140, etc.

KAMBOJAs PANCALA AND MALAVA

197

who were apparently the most important people of the north-
western province of the Maurya empire. But whether the
absence sometimes of Gandharas and sometimes of both the
Gandharas and Kambojas from the references to the Yavanas
suggests that the Kamboja and Gandhara lands were at times
broadly included in the Yavana country cannot be determined
from the above Asokan epigraphs. In the age of the Indo-
Greeks, as we know from coins and the MUindapafihay the
Yavana country must have included Afghanistan in the west
and Sakala (modern Sialkot in the Punjab).^ Another fact to be
remembered in this connection is that, before the rise of the
Yavanas to prominence in Uttarapatha^ the most important
peoples of that region were the Gandharas and the Kambojas.
This is indicated by the list of the sixteen Mahajanapadas
flourishing in the age of the Buddha as enumerated in the
Anguttaranikdya (VII. 5.3 and 5), which mentions the Gandharas
and Kambojas but omits the Yavanas-

The Ahkuravatthu section of the Petavattku (verses
257-58) suggests that there was a direct caravan route between
Dvaraka (Dvaravati) in Kathiawar and the country of the
Kambojas.^ There is also no doubt that the Kamboja capital
was directly connected with the capital of Gandhara and of
some other Mahajanapadas by an easy route. Now, of the three
important peoples living in Uttarapatha during the Maurya
age, viz. the Yavanas, Kambojas and Gandharas, the third
is definitely known to have inhabited the modern Rawalpindi-
Peshawar region of West Pakistan, since two of the most im-
portant Gandharan cities of the early period were Taksasila in
the Rawalpindi District and Puskaravati or Puskalavati in
the Peshawar District.^ This consideration seems to go against

I. Gf. Malaiasekera, Diciionaiy of Pah Propir s.v.

a- qqiRqq i

qr^f sTTTtrfqc^ ti

fqwtoT Tfqr gfT I

I Is =11’!.^' fqwrar ii (*'4)7/ Piadna^ 88,

189-90). See also Rdmdsana^ VII. 1 14* 1 1 ; H. C. Ra>cliaudhuii, op.cit, , pp.
30 fF., pp. 124-25. Hiuen-tsang speaks of Parusapura (Peshawar) as the

198

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

the location of the Kamboja country in the Pamirs. Another
important fact, generally forgotten, is that the territory called
Bactria or Bactriana by the Greeks and Bahlika by the Indians
formed no part of the Maurya empire. This land, bounded by
the Hindu Kush in the south and east and by the Oxus in the
north-east and having its headquarters at the site of modern
Baikh in Northern Afghanistan, was a province of the Seleucid
empire till the middle of the third century B.C., when it became
an independent kingdom under Diodotus I. This fact suggests
that the Pamirs lying beyond the Hindu Kush also lay outside
the empire of Asoka. It is therefore dijBScult to believe that
Asoka’s Kamboja subjects lived in the Pamirs- We have now
also to think of the light thrown on the problem by the recently
discovered Kandahar inscriptions of Asoka.

According to the Mahdvarhsa (XXIX. 40), the chief city
of the Yavana country was Alasanda or Alasanda which has been
identified by some scholars with Alexandria founded by Alexander
the Great near Kabul. ^ According to the Milindapanha^^ the
Dvipa or Dwab of Alasanda was two hundred yojanas from
Sakala, capital of the Yavana king Milinda (i. e. the Indo-
Greek king Menander who flourished about the close of the
second century B.C. ), the distance between Sakala and Kashmir
being only twelve Yojanas. The Kandahar Edict® of A^oka
has two versions, one of which is written in the Greek language
and alphabet. There is no doubt that this part of the Edict was
meant for Asoka’s Yavana or Greek subjects who lived in Afgha-
nistan, particularly in the Kandahar region. Thus the concen-
tration of the Greek population in the Maurya empire was in
the said area. Since the name of Kandahar is derived from
the Greek name Alexandria (' Alexandria among the Ara-
chosians^ founded by Alexander), it is also possible to think
that Alasanda of the Mahdvarhsa is identical with Kandahar.
The Dwab of Alasanda may in that case be the land between the
Helmund and Tarnak rivers in Southern Afghanistan.

capital of Gandhara (Watters, op.cit ^ pp. 1^8-99), while Al-Biruni
mentions Vaihand (Udabhanda or XJnd j as its capital (Sachau, AlberunVs
India, Part I, p. 959}

1. Geiger, Alahdvamsa^ p. 194. We have elsewhere suggested the

location of an Alasanda near the mouth of the Indus. See below
Chapter XIV. "

2. Ed. Trenckner, pp. 82-83-

3. Ep. Ind., VoL XXXIII, pp, i ff.

KAMBOJAj PANGABA AND MAIAVA

199

The other version of the Kandahar Edict is written in the
Aramaic language and script which were adopted by the
Achaemenian administration. Aramaic was also introduced
in the north-western areas of the Indian sub-continent when
they were conquered by Darius I about the close of the sixth
century B. C.^ and it is well-known that the Kharosthi alphabet
used in the Asokan Edicts in the Peshawar and Hazara
Districts^ which are written in the Indian Prakrit language, is
an Indian modification of the Aramaic script.

But who are the people for whom the Aramaic version
of Asoka’s Kandahar Edict was intended ? Apparently they
were Iranians living in the Maurya empire, and considering
the close association of the Yavanas and Kambojas in Asokan
epigraphs, there can be no doubt that it was the Kambojas for
whom the Aramaic version of the Kandhar Edict was meant.
That the Kambojas were of Iranian extraction was long ago
suggested.^ They were settled in the Afghanistan region in
Uttarapatha. Their numbers were occasionally swelled by
new migrants from Iran, especially during the age of the Achae-
menians. Their main concentration was specially in Southern
Afghanistan, where they appear to have lived side by side with
the Yavanas. Of course, this does not prove that some of the
Kambojas did not live elsewhere in the Maurya empire even
during the reign of Asoka or that some of them did not migrate
to other areas at later dates.

We have seen how originally the Gandharas and Kambojas
were the most important peoples in Uttarapatha and how, after
Alexander’s conquest, the Yavanas became more prominent in
that area. Another interesting fact is that, with the advent
of the Sakas on the scene, on the decline of the Indo-Greeks,
they were often more closely associated with the Yavanas, and
the j oint mention of iSaka-Yavana became popular.^ The culture
of the Gandharas and Kambojas appears to have been modified
due to their contact with the Yavanas even in the Maurya age.

1. Cf. JR AS, 1912, pp. 255-57; Ltng. Svri\ Ind., Voi. X, pp. 45^-57 •

2. See Patanjali’s Mahdbhd^ya on Panini, II. 4. 10; Milmdapahha , p,

327; also Saka-Yavana-Pahlava in a Nasik inscription (^Sel. Ins,, 194 ^?
p. 197).

200 geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

though later it underwent further modification as a result of
the occupation of Uttarapatha successively by the Sakas,
Parthians and Kusanas. We also see that, in the later lists of
the peoples of Uttarapatha, such as those found in Varaha-
mihiva!' sBrhatsarhhitd and the Bhuvanakosa section of the Puranas,
the Yavanas, Kambojas and Gandharas are not usually men-
tioned in the same breath as in some of the older records,
though two of them are sometimes placed side by side. Thus,
while the Manusmrti (X. 43) omits the Gandharas and has the
Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas in close proximity, the Bhuvana-
kosa puts the Yavanas by the side of the Gandharas, and the
Kambojas elsewhere.’^

It appears that the location of the Kamboja country in
the Pamirs has been somewhat influenced by Kalidasa’s Raghu-
vaifiSa (IV. 60ff. ) which describes how Raghu left the land of
the Parasikas or Sassanians in the w'estern region and subju-
gated the countries in the northern areas of Bharatavarsa. In
this region, Raghu first defeated the Hunas on the banks of the
Vaiiiksu (Oxus), i. e. in the Balhika country or Bactria, next
subdued the Kambojas and then ascended the Himalayas.
In the Himalayas, he met the Karatas (probably in Nepal),
defeated the Utsavasanketas and other hill tribes, accepted the
services and presents of the Himalayan peoples like the
Kinnaras, and finally reached the kingdom of Pragjyotisa or
Kamarupa in the valley of the Lauhitya or Brahma-putra.
Unfortunately, the evidence is too vague for the definite location
of the Kambojas in the Pamirs. It must also be admitted that
the reference here is not to the age of the Mauryas whose empire,
moreover, did not include the Pamirs.

It is well known that corrupt readings in the Puranic
section on Geography created confusion in the minds even of the

1. Gf. above, p. 33 , note i ; p. 34, note 4 According to legends
envisaging ethnic relations between the Yavanas and Gandharas, the Yavana,
Gandhara and Mleccha peoples were descendants respectively of Yayati’s
sons Turvasu, Druhyu and Ann {Matfya Puiana, 34. 30; 48. 6 fF.).

Gandhara after whom the Gandhara- vi say a was named, is represented as
the great-grandson of Druhyu who is sometimes also said to have been
the progenitor of the Bhojas.

KAMBOJA, FaScaIAl anb mabava

201

medieval writers. Thus the Vdyu and Brahmdnda Putdnas read
Andhra-Vdkdh (i.e. the Andhras and Vakas or Bakas) in the
list of the East Indian peoples in the place of Angd Vangdh (i.e.
the Ahgas and Vahgas) in the corresponding text in several
other Puranas,^ and Yadavaprakasa must have relied on such
defective readings of the Puranas when he included, among the
peoples of Eastern India, the Andhras, Vakas and Salvas.^
Familiarity with this type of corrupt texts formerly led us to
suspect the corrrctness of a number of statements in the account
of the 56 countries in and around the Indian sub-contiment,
which is found in the late medieval work entitled Saktisangama
Tantra.^ But a re-examination became necessary in respect of
a few of the cases, one of them relating to the country of Pah-
cala as described in the said work.

Verse 23 of the said section of the Tantra, referred to
above, reads as follows :

5 cm \

An alternative reading is dasa-tri-yojan-ottaram in the second
line.

It is said that the Pahcala country lies to the west as well
as to the north of Kuru-ksetra (in the Karnal-Ambala region
of the Eastern Punjab) at a distance of 30 yojanas from Indra-
prastha (in the Delhi region ) or 30 yojanas to the north of
Indraprastha. Kyojana being regarded as equal to 8 or 9 miles,
"iO yojanas in the above description would roughly indicate about
250 miles. Since however the ancient Pahcala country with
its capitals at Ahicchatra and Kampilya in ancient times and
at Kanyakubja in the early medieval age actually lay in the
Bareilly-Farrukhabad region, i. e. to the east of the Eastern
Punjab and the Delhi region, we were inclined to regard the
Tantra text as faulty. But we have now noticed that the Sakti--
sangama Tantra contains several passages indicating the location

1. Gf- above, p. 36 , note 5.

2. See Vaijayantikosa^ ed, Oppert, Bhumi Section, Desa Subsection,
verse 32.

3. Gf. 1st cd. of the present work, pp. 68fF.

202 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANB MEDIEVAL INDIA

of the Pancala country in the region of the Western Punjab
and Southern Kashmir^ and this consistency of the author
appears to be rather significant.

Verse 48 describes the location of Kuru-desa (with its
ancient capitals at Hastinapura in the Meerut District and at
Indraprastha near Delhi) of the present Delhi-Meerut region
as follows :

It says that the Kuru country extends from Hastinapura
and lies to the south of Kuru-ksetra and to the east of Pancala.
We have to note that the Pancala country is located in verse
28 to the north and west of Kuru-ksetra or the Karnal-Ambala
region while verse 48 locates it in the land to the west of Kuru-
desa or the Delhi-Meerut region. Pancala thus covered parts
of Southern Kashmir and the Western Punjab.

That the Pancala country of the Saktisangama Tantra is not
identical with the ancient territory of that name lying in the
Bareilly-Farrukhabad region is further suggested by a few other
indications of the Tantra. Thus verse 24 says —

Here the Kamboja country is located between Pancala-
desa and the south-eastern border of the Mleccha land, i. e.
the Muslim world, and it has to be noted in this connection
that two Mleccha territories are described in the text, verse 30
speaking of Vakranta (Makran) as Mahdmleccha-pardyana and
verses 31-32 of Khurasana (Khurasan including Airaka or Iraq
in its northern part) as Mleccha-mdrga-pardyana, The Kamboja
territory thus abutted on Pancala in the east (about the Western
Punjab) and on the south-eastern border of Khurasana (some-
where in Southern Afghanistan) and this seems to be suggested
also by verse 28 which runs —

KAMBOJAj PANCALA AND MAIAVA

203

We know that Bahlika is the old Indian name of the Balkh
region of Northern Afghanistan and that it lies to the east of
Khorasan. The description of Bahlika-desa as situated to the
east of Mahamleccha and extending up to the Kamboja terri-
tory would suggest that Kamboja lay roughly to the east and
south of Bahlika (Northern Afghanistan ) and to the west of
P^cala (Western Punjab and Southern Kashmir) and there-
fore comprised the Peshawar-Hazara region of West Pakistan
and the Kafiristan-Kandahar region of Afghanistan including
the tribal territory lying between the two areas. The Kam-
bojas having been Iranian autochthons originally, the discovery
of the Aramaic version of an Asokan edict at Kandahar points
to the existence of their most important settlement in Southern
Afghanistan in the 3rd century B.G.^ Whether Kamboja in-
cluded the Pamir region in the north cannot be determined;
but its location between Pahcala-desa and the south-eastern
border of the Mleccha country including the Khurasan region
seems to go against the possibility.

Verse 26 of the ^aktisangama Tantra should also be consi-
dered in this connection. It runs as follows : —

5 \

It is said that the Pandu country lies to the south of Kam-
boja and to the west of Indraprastha or the Delhi region. We
have to note that, according to verse 48, Pancala lay to the west
of the Kuru country in the Delhi-Meerut region, while verse
26 says that Pandu-desa lay to the west of Indraprastha in the
Delhi region. It therefore appears that Pandu-desa lay to the
south of Pancala in the region of the Northern Punjab and
Southern Kashmir, i. e. in the Jaipur-Bikaner region of Nor-
thern Rajasthan. Under these circumstances, Kdmhojdd^ dak^a--
bhdge tu may be a mistake for Pancdldd dak$a-bhdge tu* But,
ii Kdmbojdd=^ dak§a-bhdge is taken to be the correct reading, the
Pandu country probably extended considerably towards the
west and comprised Northern Sind and the adjoining region of
the Western Punjab. The second suggestion seems to be sup-
ported by verse 53 which locates the Madra country (having
its old capital at Sakala, modem Sialkot) between Virata (in

I. See above, p. 199.

204 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Jaipur) and Pandya (Pandu) in purva-dak^a-krama (extending
from east to south). It is further supported by Ptolemy’s
Geography (y\l. I A&) which locates the Pandoouoi or Pandava
people on the banks of the Bidaspes or Jhelum.

The application of the name Paficala to an area considera-
bly away from the old Pancala or Pahcala country in the
Bareilly-Farrukhabad region in the SaktL'ahgama Tantra seems
to suggest that, by the late medieval period when the Tantra
was compiled, Pancala as the old name of a territory in XJ.P.
was forgotten. But, at the same time, there must have been
some basis for the same name being applied to the tract of land
in the western Punjab and Southern Kashmir region. In this
connection, it is interesting to note the application of the name
Pir Panjal to a lofty range of hills forming the south-western
boundry of Kashmir extending for about 40 miles from the
Baramula pass in the north-west to the Pir Panjal pass in the
south-east as well as to the river of the same name rising in
Kashmir in lat. 33° 30', long. 74° 43' and falling into the
Jhelam in the Punjab in lat. 33° 16', long 73° 38'. There is
an interesting note on the name of the Pir Panjal from the
erudite pen of Stein who has shown that the prefix Pir is a late
addition, that Panjal is pronounced in Kashmiri as Pantsal and
in Pahadi as Pancal and that the ancient spelling of the name
was Pancala since Srivara mentions the range as Pancaladeva,
while Ksemendra speaks of the Pir Panjal pass as Pancaladhara.^
Essentially therefore Paficala was the name of the valleys of the
hill range and river bearing the name Pir Panjal or Pancala.

The above discussion would show that the Saktisahgama
Tantra indicates the following location of the territories:

1. Kuru-desa in the Delhi-Meerut region;

2. Kuru-ksetra to the north of Kuru-desa, in theKarnal-
Ambala region;

3. Paricala-desa to the north of Kuru-ksetra and to the
west of Kuru-ksetra and Kuru-desa, in the region
of the Western Punjab and Southern Kashmir;

4. Kamboja-desa extending from the Pancala country
in the region of the Western Punjab and Southern
Kashmir, to the south-eastern border of the Mleccha

I. Kalhana's Rdjatarangini^ VoL 11^ pp, 396-98.

KAMBOJA, PAN C ALA AND MALAVA

205

country or Khurasana (comprising, besides Iraq, etc.,
the north-eastern regions of Iran and the adjoining
areas) in the Kandahar region of Southern Afgha-
nistan, lying in the present Peshawar-Hazara region
of West Pakistan and the Kafiristan-Kandahar region
of Afghanistan;

5. Bahlika-desa between the Kamboja country in the
east and south and the MIeccha land (Khurasana)
in the west, in Northern Afghanistan;

6. Pandu-desa or Pandya-desa to the west of Indra-
prastha or the Delhi region and to the south of Kam-
boja, about the northern parts of Sind and the ad-
joining areas of the Western Punjab, abutting on the
Madra country about the present Sialkot region of the
Punjab.

Ill

The vast area between Bundelkhand in the east and Raja-
sthan in the west has been known as Malwa (Malava) since
medieval times. In the ancient period, the eastern part of this
territory was called Akara or Dasarna which had its capital at
the city of Vidisa, modern Besnagar on the Betwa (ancient
Vetravati) near Bhilsa in Madhya Pradesh. The Avanti
country having its headquarters at Ujjayini on the Sipra, also
in Madhya Pradesh, was situated in the western part of Malwa.
But when exactly the ancient Avanti and Akara-Dasarna re-
gions came to be known as Malava (Malwa ) has not yet been
properly investigated. The territoiy could have been so called
only after its occupation by the Malava people.

In the eighth decade of the fourth century B.C. when
Alexander the Great of Macedon invaded the north-western
regions of Bharatavarsa, the Malavas, called Malloi by
the Greeks, are known to have been living in the land lying
to the north of the confluence of the Ravi and the Ghenab and
were probably confederated with the Ksudrakas who inhabited
the Montgomery District of West Pakistan. From the said area,
the Malavas, or at least a large section of the tribe, migrated
to the Jaipur-Tonk region of Rajasthan. This movement may
have begun during the Indo-Greek occupation of the Punjab,

206 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEBIEVAE INDIA

but seems to have continued down to the Scythian conquest
of that territory.^

Thousands of Malava coins were discovered at the village
of Nagar (ancient Malavanagara ) near Uniyara in the Tonk
District. Nagar must have been the chief city of the Malava
people, though their political influence soon spread over wide
areas of Rajasthan. This is indicated by the discovery of a
number of inscriptions, bearing dates in the Krta or Malava
era, in different parts of the State.^ There is little doubt that
the old Avanti and Akara-Dasarna regions came to be known
as Malava due to their contact with these MMavas. But histo-
rians do not appear to have any clear idea as to when the name
Malava became popular in the sense of the territory now called
Malwa. That is why whenever the name Malava is noticed
in the epigraphic and literary records of the post-Gupta age^
it is generally regarded as identical with modern Malwa.^
But there is evidence to show that this is erroneous.

About the beginning of the seventh century A.D., Bana-
bhatta^s Har^acariia speaks of the Malavas as friends of the
Gaudas of West Bengal and as enemies of the Pusyabhutis of
Thanesar and the Maukharis of Kanauj.^ The Chinese pilgrim
Hiuen-tsang, who travelled in India in the second quarter
of the same century, aslo gives an account of the Mo-la-p’o or
Malava country.^ The Malavas are again mentioned by
Ravikirti in the Aihole inscription of 634 A.D. as having been
defeated by the celebrated Galukya king Pulnkesin II of
Badami.® But these contemporary authorities d" not speak of
the same Malava country or people.

What Banabhatta meant by ‘'Malava’ is clearly indicated
by his KddambariJ In this work, Vidisa on the Vetravati is
represented as the capital of Malava while Ujjayini on the
Sipra is described as the chief city of the Avanti (Avanti)

1. IThe Age of Imperial Unity ^ p. 163.

2. Ihtd,^ pp. 164-65.

3. Gf. Hhe Classical Age, pp. 98, 105-06; T'he Age of Imperial Kanavj, pp.
9, 24, 26; etc.

4- Tripathi, History of Kanauj, pp. 51, 65 ff.

5. Watters, On Tuan Chwang^s Travels in India, Vol. II, pp. 242 fF.

6. Ep* Ind,, VoL VI, p. 6, verse 22.

7. Ed, H- Siddhantavagisa, pp. 19 and 183. ; d, Sitcbx , Ancient
Malwa and the Vikramdditya Tradition, p. 10

KAMBOJA, PANGAIA AND MAIAVA 207

country. This shows that East Malwa had already become
famous as Malava, though West Malwa still retained its
ancient name Avan ti. That this nomenclature of East and West
Malwa was not totally forgotten in much later times is known
from Yasodhara’s commentary on Vatsyayana’s Kdmiisutra^
entitled Jayamangald^ which was composed in the thirteenth
century, as well as from the Saktisangama Tantra of a still later
date. Yasodhara explains Mdlavt (the Malava girl) as
‘^born in Eastern Malava^ while Avantikd (the girl of Avanti )
is explained by him as ‘'born in the land of Ujjayinr and "the
girl of Western Malava’.^ The Saktisangama Tantra likewise
applies the names Malava and Avanti respectively to East and
West Malwa.2

Hiuen-tsang also distinguishes between Mo-la-p’o (Malava )
and the Wu-she-yen-na (Ujjayini) territory. But he locates
Malava not in East Malwa as done by Banabhatta, but in
the valley of the river Mo-ha, i.e. the Mahi in Gujarat, and
further says that Kheta (modern Kaira) and Anandapura
(modern Vadnagar) both in the present Gujarat State, formed
parts of Malava. Thus, while Banabhatta'^s Malava lay to the
east of Avanti (Ujjayini), Hiuen-tsang places Malava to the
west of the Ujjayini region.

After the extirpation of the Sakas of Western India by
Gandragupta II Vikramaditya about the close of the fourth
century. East and West Malwa were being ruled respectively
by the Later Guptas and the Aulikaras as vassals of the Guptas*
Both these ruling families appear to have belonged to the
Malava clan, though the clan-name attached itself only to the
former probably because two contiguous kingdoms could have
hardly borne the same name.

The Aihole inscription seems to represent the Malavas
as the neighbours of the Latas who had their headquarters at
Navasarika (modem Nausari in the Surat District of South
Gujarat) and the Gurjaras who ruled from the city of Nandi-
puri in the present Broach District in the same neighbourhood.
These Malavas therefore appear to have lived in Hiuen-tsang’s
MMava in the Gujarat region and not in East Malwa which

1. Gf. VI. 5. 22 and 24 with Yasodhara’s commentary thereon.

2. See above, pp. 9 g“ 99 *

208

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

is called Malava by Banabhatta. In later records, Kakka,
viceroy of the Rastrakuta emperor Govinda III (794-
814 A.D.), claims to have been stationed in the La^a country
(South Gujarat) for the purpose of checking Gurjara-Pratihara
encroachment into Malava4 This Malava is apparently Hiuen-
tsang’s and not Banabhatta^s, since East Malwa could hardly
have been defended by an officer stationed at a distance in
Southern Gujarat.

In West Malwa, the Hunas subdued the Aulikara feuda-
tories of the Guptas about the close of the fifth century, though
Yasodharman of the Aulikara dynasty re-established the fortunes
of the family by defeating the Huna king Mihirakula about 532
A.D.^ A few decades later, the Kalacuris of the Narmada
valley extended their power over Malwa. A charter of K.ala-
curi Sahkaragana was issued from Ujjayini in 595 A.D. while
his son Buddharaja issued a grant from Vaidisa (Vidisa) in
608 A.D.^ But Hiuen-tsang states that Malava in Gujarat
formed a part of the dominions of the Maitraka king Siladitya
Dharmaditya (605-09 A. D.) of Valabhi (modern Vala near
Bhavnagar in Kathiawar), while iSiladitya’s successor Khara-
graha I is known to have issued his Virdi plates from Ujjayini
in 617 A.D.^ We also know from the Harsacarita and the
Pusyabhuti inscriptions that the Malava (East Malwa) king
Devagupta was defeated by king Rajyavardhana of Thanesar
about 605 A.D.® It is not improbable that, about the begin-
ning of the seventh century, the Pusyabhutis and Kalacuris
were allied against a combination of the Maitrakas and Later
Guptas. Sometime later, however, the Pusyabhuti king
Harsavardhana seems to have occupied both East and West
Malwa and compelled the Maitraka king Dhruvasena II Bala-
ditya (629-43 A.D.) to become his subordinate ally.® Dhruva-
sena II is known to have granted land in the district called
Malavaka (Malava) apparently in the Mahi valley.'^

I. Ind. Ant , VoL VII, p 163.

2- Gf. Select Inscriptions^ pp. 386 fi* , 394 (veise 43 ), 395 (verse 6).

3. Bhandarkar’s List of Inscriptions, Nos. 1 206-07 .

4. Gadre, Important Inscriptions from ^he Baroda Siate^ Vol I, pp. 7 fF.
The A*^va-nanji himulakaJpa Tv. 586) includes Uijayani in Siladitya’s kingdom.

5. Tnpathi, op. ctt., pp. 64 fl'., 72-

6. Proc. AJ.O. Conf, Vol. XII, p. 525.

7. Bhandarkar, op. cit.y Nos. 1346-47.

KAMBOJA, PANGAIA AND MAIAVA 207

1. Gf. VI. 5. 22 and 24 with Yasodhara’s commentary thereon.

2. See above, pp. 9 g“ 99 *

210 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAE INDIA

Vakpati Mufija, son of Harsa Siyaka, issued a charter
from Ujjayini in 975 A.D.^ His successors ruled over East and
West Malwa for several centuries with the centres of their power
in the city of Dhara (modern Dhar) and the fort of Mandapa
(modern Mandu ), both in West Malwa. The Paramara kings
including Vakpati and Bhoja (1000-55 A. D.) became famous
as the lords of Malava.^ In the eleventh century^ the Para-
mara contemporary of Calukya Somesvara I (1043-68 A.D.)
is called Mdlavendra in Bilhana’s Vikramdnkadevacarita (III. 67)
while Yadavaprakasa’s Vaijayanti regards Malava and Avanti
as identical.^ The popularity of the name Malava in the sense
of West Malwa thus appears to date from the Paramara occu-
pation of the territory in the latter half of the tenth century

Many are the cases in which the same names are found
to be borne by more localities than one. Thus^ in the geog-
raphy of modern India^ we have at least three places called
Patna, viz. (1 ) headquarters of the Patna District of Bihar,
situated at lat. 25*^ 37', long. 85° 12' 31"; (2) headquarters
of the former Patna State, now merged in Orissa, standing at
lat. 20° 36', long. 13° 9'; and (3) town in the Belgaum District
of Maharashtra, 20 miles to the west of Belgaum, at lat. 15°
52', long. 75° 18". It is well known that the name Patna,
applied to these places, is derived from the Sanskrit word
pattana meaning ‘'a township’. Similar is the case of the several
places called Navagrama (Nowgong), literally ^a new village
or habitation’. There are some places bearing names ending
in the words puri, nagara, etc., meaning ‘a city or town’, which
are really the latter part of geographical names like Purusot-
tamapuri and Rajapuri, Pataliputranagara (iSrinagara) and
Malavanagara, etc.

j Bhaudarkar, op. cit.. No. 84. Siyaka’s father Vairisirhha probably
ruled Onara as a feudatory of his Rastrakuta overlord. See A.R. Ep..
1957-56, p. 2.

2* Cf. the fourteenth century work Piabandhacintamanx, Tawney’s
trans., pp. 16, 29-30, 32, 36, 44, etc.

6ee Oppert’s ed., p, 36. In the twelfth century. Hemacandra’s
Abhtdnanactntdmam (verse 956) supports the identification. This work gives
Avanti as another name of Ujjayini (verse 976), though the variants Avanti
and Avanti are both known to have been used to indicate the country and
Its capital.

KAMBOJAj FAN GALA ANB MAI.AVA 211

There are also cases in which the name of one place is
purposely applied to another. Thus the Brahmana^ of Patali-
putra appear to have given the name Pataliputra to modern
Guddalore (headquarters of the South Arcot District of Tamil
Nadu ) where they must have settled in considerable numbers-

Besides cases like the above, the same name is sometimes
found to be borne by different localities in different parts of
the world, although their origin must have been different. The
people of India, to whom the city of Delhi and the State of
Bihar are so familiar, need not be surprised if Delhi was the
name of the chief town of the Delaware County in the State
of New York, USA, situated on the northern bank of the
Mohawk branch of the Delaware river, 70 miles west of
Albany, and if Bihar was the name of a County of Upper
Hungary, which bordered on Transylvania, was intersected by
the Korosh river and had its headquarters at Groswarden.
Likewise the name of the well-known East Asiatic country of
Korea was borne by one of our princely States, the headquar-
ters of which (also called Korea, lat, 23° 6', long. 82° 26^)
lay 153 miles north-west of Sambalpur (Orissa) and 135 miles
south-west of Sherghati (Gaya District, Bihar).

It is of course not common for people to make a confusion
between two localities of the same name, but belonging to
different countries. However, our attention was recently
drawn to a case falling under the same category of confusion.

The ancient city of Uj jay ini (Pali- Prakrit — Ujjenx, Ujeni)
on the Sipra river was the capital of the Avanti (West Maiwa)
country. Ujjayini (now called UJjain), at present the head-
quarters of the District of that name in the western region of
Madhya Pradesh, is famous for its temple of the god Mahakala
(Siva) to which pious pilgrims flock from different parts of
India even today. There was another town of the name Ujjayini
in Ceylon, about which Malasekara'‘s Dictionary of Pali Proper
Names (VoL I, p. 345) has the following note : "'a city in

Ceylon founded by Vijaya^s minister Accutagami*’, and the
reader is referred to the Dtpavarhsa^ IX. 36, and Mahavamsa^
VII- 46. In the same context, Malalasekera also refers to a
third place of the same name, viz. the nigama or township of
Ujjayini which is known from the Buddhavarhsa commentary.

It is unfortunate that Ujjayini, capital of Avanti in India,

212 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

has been confused with the Ceylonese UjjayinI, said to have
been founded by Accutagami, not only at two places of
B.G. Law’s Historical Geography of Ancient India (published about
1954), pp. 52 and 332, but also in the chapter contributed
by him to Th£ Age of Imperial Unity {History and Culture of the
Indian People, Vol. II, 1951 ), p. 14. At the three places referred
to above we have the following three statements:

I. “The capital of Avanti which was one of the sixteen
great janapadas was Ujjayini which was built by Accutagami,”

II. “Ujjayini which was the capital of Avanti was

built by Accutagami according to the Dipavarhsa (p. 57).’*

III. “Ujjayini, the capital of Avanti, was built by
Accutagami.”

We are glad to note that the said confusion is not found
in Law’s earlier publication entitled Ujjayini in Ancient India,
Gwalior, 1944.

Chapter XIII

OANGA ANI> the OANOARIBAE

Classical writers represent the Nanda kings of Magadha
primarily as rulers of the peoples known to them as the
Gangaridae and the Prasii. The second of the two names is
rightly taken to be the Greek plural form of the Indian word
Prdcya meaning the inhabitants of the Eastern I>iv5sion of India.^
It is well known that Bharatavarsa was divided into five coun-
tries, viz^ Pracya or Eastern India, Pascatya or Western India,
XJttarapatha or the Himalayas with the north-western region and
the a<^oining areas of Central Asia, Madhyadesa or the central
part of Northern India, and Haksinatya or the peninsula of the
Deccan.2 The Pracya country or the land of the Pracya people
comprised Bihar and Bengal together with the eastern part of
the U. P. and the eastern fringe of Orissa. The western limit
of this land was the Kalaka-vana (probably near Allahabad)
according to the authors of the Sutra works,® Prayaga or

See above, p. 38, note 2.

2. Ibid.^ pp. 30 ff- The Himalayan and Vindhyan regions were

sometimes added to these. See above, pp 42-46 (Sections I.

inatya was also called Hakbinapatha and Pascatya also Aparanta.

3. Gf. Baudhdyana DharmasuUa^ I 2. 14-16 :

sr 1 rdij] 1 m r ^ f^rir^r 1

?Tf%TrsT ar arpETTC: afr SPfTTW l 1 sfan^ iTTw5f%^

jac: 1

But according to Sahkhalikhita

I T<^i ^ and according to Paithinasi : BIT
m W 5T: t

fd”dXRl See Rangaswami Aryan gar, Rdjcdharma,

p. 6 q. It should be noticed that what was originally called Aryavaxta was
later named JMadhyadesa while in later times Aryavarta included the
whole of ISrorthern India. This is related to the gradual spread of Aryanism^

214 GEOGRAJ^HY of ancient and medieval INDIA

Allahabad according to the Manusmrti^ and Varanasi or Banaras
according to the Kdvyamimdrhsd^ composed by Rajasekhara
about the beginning of the tenth century A.D.^ Pragjyotisa or
Assam^ often regarded by ancient writers as a Himalayan
country, formed no part of the dominions of the Nandas and
Mauryas of Magadha. In the seventh century A.D., the
Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-tsang noticed Stupas attributed to the
Maurya king Asoka (who is said to have built 84000 Stupas
throughout his empire ) in all parts of Bengal, but not a single
one of them anywhere in the dominions of Bhaskaravarman,
king of Assam. The country of Kalihga comprising wide areas
of Orissa was usually regarded in early times as a land belong-
ing to Daksinatya or the Southern Division of India.^

The people called Gangaridae is usually located in
Bengal. They therefore represented one of the various tribal
elements constituting the so-called Pracya people. The separate
mention of the Gangaridae and the Prasii (who apparently
included the Gangaridae ) indicates the importance of
the former among different elements of the Pracya people
under the Nandas (who may have belonged to that tribe) in
the fourth century B. C- The name Gangaridae is sometimes

2 .

See II, 22-23 :

srr ?riT5TW € i

G.o.s. ed , pp. 93-94 = ^ 'RH: y 4 ^r:. .

'TOT: I

c c\

3- In their eagerness to include the land of the Buddha’s birth and
activities in Madhyadesa, the Buddhist writers give its boundaries as
Klajahgala (Kankjol near Rajmahal in the Santal Parganas District on the
eastern fringe of Bihar) in the east and beyond it, Mahasala; the river
Salavati m the south-east, the town of Setakannika in the south ; the town
and district of Thuna in the west; and Mount Usiradhvaja in the north
{^Ai.ahdvaggay V. 12. 13)* According to the Divyavaddna (ed. Cowell and
Neil, p. 22), the sacred land was bounded by Pundravardhana (Mahasthan
in the Bogra District of North Bengal } in the east and, beyond it. Mount
Pundralaksa; by the town of Saravati in the south and beyond it the river
Saravati; ^ by the Brahmana villages Sthuna and Upasthuna in the west,
and by Usira-giri in the north. The countries outside the limits were called
pratyanta. According to Weber {Hist. Ind, p. 115, note), Kampilya

(Kampil in the Farrukhabad District, U. P.) was originally the eastern
limit of Madhyadesa.

4. See above, p. 39, note 2-

GAMGA AND THE GANGARIDAE

215

taken as a Greek corruption of Sanskrit Ganga-rdfira, Gangd-
rddha or Gangd-hrdaya. The unsoundness of these suggestions
is clearly demonstrated by the fact that the word Gangaridae in
the plural is derived from the base Gange or Ganges^ as Achae-
menidae (the Achaemenians ) from Achaemenes and Sassanidae
(the Sasanians ) from Sassan.^ The name of the people is there-
fore actually Gange or Ganges and not Gangaridae which
simply means the Ganges or Gangian people. That the correct
form of the name of this people was Ganges is certain since, as
will be shown below, it is found in the Periplus of the ErythToean
Sea as the name of its habitat. The particular area of Bengal
that was inhabited by the Gangaridae (Ganges people or
Gangians ) is indicated not only by the Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea {circa 80 A.D. ) but very definitely also by the Geography of
Ptolemy {circa 145 A.D. ).

Ptolemy® refers to the five estuaries of the river Ganges as
(1 ) the westernmost mouth called Kambyson (144° 30', 18*
15'), (2) the second mouth called Mega (145° 45', 18° 30'),

(3) the third mouth called Kamberikon (146“ 20', 18° 40'),

(4) the fourth mouth called Pseudostomon (147° 40', 18° 30'),
and (5) the fifth mouth called Antebole (148° 30', 18° 15').
Although owing to the changes in their courses, the identifi-
cation of these mouths of the Ganges with her present estuaries
may not be beyond doubt, Ptolemy’s estimate of the distance
between the easternmost and westernmost of them to be four
degrees of latitude seems to suggest that the area washed by the
estuaries of the Ganges in the second century A.D. was practically
the same as it is today, that is to say, the land between the
Bhagirathi or Hooghly river in the west and the Padma-
Meghna estuary in the east. Elsewhere in his work,* the
Greek geographer says, “All the region about the mouths
of the Ganges is occupied by the Gangaridae with the follow-
ing city — Gange, the royal city (i.e. capital of the country) —
146°, 19° 15'.” It is clear from the above account that the
people called Gangian or Ganges received their name from

I. The letter r in the plural foim is an augment.

a. See above, pp. 171 fF.

3. Geog., VII. i.i8.

4. VII. i. 81.

216

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL IITOtA

Gange^ the chief city of their country, just as the people of
Attika were known as Athenian from the capital city of Athens.
In India, names of cities like Pundravardhana, Karnasuvarna
or Tamralipta usually also indicated the districts round them
and,moreover, the names of a country and its people were almost
always the same. Thus, according to Ptolemy, the Ganges
people or Gangians inhabited the delta of Southern Bengal
watered by the lower spurs of the river Ganges. In the second
century A.D., they appear to have been an autonomous people
with their capital at the city of Gauge which, as its name in-
dicates, was situated on the river Ganges. The latitude and longi-
tude of the city as given by the geographer, although they can
hardly be relied on, would suggest its location not far from
the confluence of the Ganges and the sea. It is difficult to say
whether the Maroundae of Ptolemy,^ whose country abutted on
that of the Gangaridae and lay to the east of the Ganges, were
the Pundras who of North Bengal or the Murundas of Bihar.

It is very interesting to note that the Periplus^ applies the
name Ganges not only to a river but also to a country and its
capital both located about the principal mouth of the river.
The author, who was a Greek navigator and merchant, says that
while sailing towards the east in the Bay of Bengal *with the
ocean to the right and the shore remaining beyond to the left%
the country called Ganges comes into view ; ‘There is a river
near it called the Ganges. On its bank is a market-town which
has the same name as the river, Ganges. Through this place are
brought malabathrum and Gangetic spikenard and pearls, and
muslins of the finest sort which are called Gangetic. It is said
that there are gold mines near these places and there is a gold
coin which is called kaltis.^^ The reference to the Gangetic
muslin no doubt reminds us of the worldwide celebrity of the
muslin manufactured at Dacca in the medieval period and
also of the dukula^ kauiika^ patrorna and jOmyara, mentioned in the
Sabha-parvan of the Mahdbhdrata as presents made to Yudhisthira
by the Vahgas, Kalihgas, Tamraliptas and Pundras of Eastern
India.^ It is also interesting that the city of Ganges, situated

1. VII. ii. 14.

2. Para. 63.

3. Gf. Motichandra, Geog. Econ, Stud,, pp, 112 ff. See also above,
pp. 172 ff.

GAKGA ANB THE GANGARIBaE

217

on the river of that name (apparently indicating the principal
mouth of the Ganges ) has been called a market- town ; but the
fact that the town bore the same name as the country round
it shows that, although it was a market-town in the eyes of
a foreign merchant, the city of Ganges was the metropolis of the
country called Ganges. It is probable that, soon after the
dissolution of the Maurya empire, the Gangian people of Lower
Bengal formed a powerful state with their headquarters at the
city of Gauge or Ganges. As, however, the name of the people
was apparently derived from their chief city, the Gangian city
seems to have existed as early as the days of the Nandas and
Mauryas of Magadha.

But a people called Gahga, Gahga or Gahgeya inhabiting
Lower Bengal and having their capital at a city called Gahga
(Greek Gauge or Ganges) is not known from ancient Indian litera-
ture. This powerful people, known to the foreign writers from
the fourth century B.G. down at least to the second century
A.D., was apparently known to the Indians by a different name.
Curiously enough Kalidasa, who lived in the fourth and fifth
centuries A.D., locates, in connection with the mythological
dig-vijaya of Raghu, the celebrated Vahga people, known from
ancient Indian literature, exactly in the same region where the
Gangaridae or Gangians are placed by the Classical writers.
In Canto IV of Kalidasa’s Raghuvarfiia^ Raghu is said to have
reached the shores of the Bay of Bengal (verse 34 ) and to have
accepted the submission of the Suhmas (verse 35 ) and subdued
the Vahgas (verses 36-37). The Suhma country, later called
Racjha, lay on both banks of the Ajay river in the modern
Burdwan region of South-West Bengal. The Raghwaarhia further
says that, after having conquered the Vahgas, the Ik^vaku hero
crossed the Kapisa (the modern Kasai river in the Midnapur
District, identified by Raychaudhuri with Ptolemy’s Kambyson,
the westernmost mouth of the Ganges) and, through the country
of the TJtkalas (inhabiting parts of the Midnapur and Balasore
Districts), reached Kalihga in the Guttack-Puri-Gangam region
(verse 38). It seems that the Kasai river in the Midnapur
District was once regarded as the demarcating line between the
Vahga and Utkala countries and that the Vahgas occupied the
delta of Lower Bengal as far as the Kasai in the west.
This is possibly supported by Ptolemy’s Geography (if Raychau-

218

GfiOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

dhuri’s indentification of the Kambyson is accepted) and cer-
tainly by the Jain Prajndpand which speaks of Tamralipti or Tam-
ralipta (near Tamluk in the Midnapur District) as a locality
belonging to the land of the Vangas.^ But far more important
in determining the home of the Vanga people is verse 36 of
Kalidasa’s text describing Raghu’s victory over the Vangas :

5ft?nsr?rr?3raT?T i

■o "v

fJTWFT w. n

The mouths of the Ganges^, referred to as Gangd-srotas^ were near
about the Bay of Bengal mentioned earlier in verse 34. The
passage Gangd’-srotO’-^ ntaresu reminds us of stan^dntare (i.e. in the
space between the breasts) in the passage na mrndla^sutrarh raci--
tarn stan-dntare, Mallinatha rightly explains Gangd-sroto-ntare^u
as Gangdydh srotasdm pravdhdndm^ antaresu dvipe^u*^ The verse
therefore means to say that^ after having totally routed the
Vahga people who were fighting from their boatSj Raghu estab-
lished columns of victory in the land interesected by the mouths
of the Ganges, which was apparently the country inhabited by
that people. This shows beyond doubt that, in the age of
Kalidasa (i.e. the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. ), the Vangas
inhabited the deltaic region of Southern Bengal and that they
were no other than the Gangaridae or Gangians who, accord-
ing to the Classical writers of the first and second centuries A.D.,
lived in the region about the mouths of the Ganges and had
their chief city near about the confluence of the Ganges and
the sea.

The location of the city of Ganga, capital of the Gangians
or Vangas in the vicinity of the confluence of the Ganga and
the Sagara (sea) suggests that it was no other than the cele-
brated holy city of Gangasagara or Gahgasagarasangama men-
tioned in Indian literature. As a personal name like Satya-
bhama is known to have been abbreviated into both Satya and
Bhama, a locality like Purusottamapuri could be and has actually
been celebrated both as Purusottama and as Puri. The city of
Gangasagara likewise seems to have been known both as Ganga

I. See Raychaudhuri, Stud Ind. AnU^ p. i86.

2- These points have also been discussed above, pp. 1716*.

GANGA AMO THB GANGARUDAfe 219

(at least to foreigners of the early period) and as Sagara (still
preserved in the name of the Sagar or Gahg^agar Island).

The ancient city of Gahgasagara at the eastern extremity
of the Gakravarti-ksetra and of Bharatavarsa^ Kumaridvipa
and Aryavarta became one of the famous all-India tirihas at
least before the rise of the Guptas in the fourth century A.D., if
not in much earlier times.^^ The popularity of pilgrimage to holy
places is noticed in the records of Asoka {circa 269-232 B.G. )
who visited several Buddhist tirthas including Sambodhi (Maha-
bodhi or Bodhigaya^ modern Bodhgaya )^ and of the Hinduised
iSaka king Rsabhadatta (119-23 A.D. ) who visited Pu^kara in
Raj pu tana and made arrangements in various tfrthas in Western
India for the benefit of the pilgrims.^ The Baudhayana Dharma^
suira^ {circa 5th century B.G. ) discouraged travels in the lands of
the Arattas, KLaraskaras, Pundras, Sauviras, Vangas, iCalingas
and Pranunas, as it prescribed purification of the travellers by
the performance of the Punastoma or the Sarvaprstha.** But
later authorities allowed travels in the Anga^ Vanga, Kalinga^,
Surastra and Magadha countries if they were undertaken for
the purpose of pilgrimage.® The Tirthayatra section of the Vana-
parvan of the Mahdhhdrata^ composed earlier than the Gupta

1. Since pilgrimage to holy places is a non-Aryan institution later
adopted by the Aryans, the antiquity of Oangasagara may be pre-Aryan.

2. See Select Inscriptions^ 1942- pp. 28, 70-71.

3. Ihid.^ pp. 161-62.

4. I. 2. 14-16 :

The epithet satikirtta-yoni applied to some peoples suggests that their
culture was an admixture of Aryan and Bravidian elements. The same work
(I. ii. 1-4) accepts cross-cousin marriage as an established custom among
the Dlksinatyas (mdtula-pitrsvasf-duhitr’-gamanarh Ddk^indtjdndm),

5- Bagchi, Pre- Aryan and PrS’-Dramdian in India, p. 74:

f%5?rr jfr: ?fwTTrr^1% ti

220 GEOGRAJ^HV of ancient and medieval INDIA

age, refers to Gangasagara as a very great tirtha?^ The iSabda-
kalpadruma quotes the following verses from the Kurma Purdriay
one of the older Purdnas known to Al-Biruni :

WFRft ITFW: I

2T?rFrK ^ 1 1

TfFrm ^ ^ qrrrniiwf \

It is said that a person dying in the waters of any part of
the Ganges gets salvation ; at Banaras salvation reaches him
even if he dies on the banks of the river ; but at Gangasagara
salvation is guaranteed whether one dies in the waters or on the
land or in the air. The Vifntisamhitdy a post-Gupta work in
its present form, recognises the importance of this tirtha in
regard to the performance of funerary rites. ^ That Gahga-
sagara was well known in North-Western India in the eleventh
century A.D. is suggested by the reference in Al-Birfmi’s work
on India {circa 1030 A.D.) to this city "where the Ganges
flows into the sea.'^

Due to several factors, the chief amongst them being the
change of the main course of the Gahga through the Padma
as well as the impotence of the descendants of the valiant Vangas

The verse is ascribed to the Ah Purdna in the Viromitrodqya^ Samskdra-
ptakdia^ Ghowkhamba, p. 546. Cf. Alahabhatata^ VIII. 45.14-15, according
to which, the idsvata-dharrna is known by certain proples including the
Kalihgas :

siriem tTcPTT: ^TTlwr: 1

^r^r: ^RrrrsrHgpTT i

I. Ill, 85, 4-5 :

Tnftfw: 11

qrn: i

Chapter 85 28 :

sfirnr ^

53W

3. Sachau, Alhemni*s India ^ VoL I, pp. 201, 261.

GAJSIGA AND THE GANGARtDAE

221

of old as guardians of the sacred place, the all-India importance
of the Gahgasagara tirtha gradually waned and its enviable
position as the greatest tirtha in Eastern India was ultimately
usurped by the medieval Puri tirtha in Orissa. As a local
tirtha , however, it preserved its popularity in Eastern India
throughout the medieval period in spite of the depredations of
Magh and Portuguese pirates in Lower Bengal. The practice
of dedicating children to the goddess Gahga in the waters of
the confluence at Gahgasagara prevalent in that age in South-
West Bengal and the neighbourhood is well known to all students
of Indian history. Medieval Bengali literature refers to the
belief that a person offering to die in the waters of Gahgasagara
with a solemn desire was sure to get it fulfilled in his next
life. Gandidasa’s &rikrfnakirtana (about the 1 6th century) has
the passage :

Ml f’FTT

arFFTT WTK '^frsT fen i

In the sixteenth century, Jayananda, a poet of the Burdwan
region, wrote in his Caitanyamahgala :

STR Wft ^

In the same century, Kavikankema Mukundarama put the follow-
ing words in the mouth of Srimanta, one of the heroes of
his Candtmangala :

5fTTpr ’PTFR 11
iSrimanta is also represented as saying :
sTfe ^ fenr ^ ^ TWfT I
^rFFTT ^ferr ?rRr 1 1

Elsewhere in the same work, one of the jealous ladies, who were
comparing their own husbands unfavourably with Gaur?
bridegroom (Siva), is found saying :

sme ^ srrfe i

fiprr qfe? ii^

X. Vide C. G. Banerji, Candimangalabodhint^ pp. 822, 857. Sugar a has
been used here to mean Gafigdsdgara.

222 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

A number of medieval Sanskrit works such as the Ganga-
vdkydvalty attributed to the Maithila writer Vidyapati {circa
1375-1450), and the Tirthacintdmani of Maithila Vacaspati-
misra {circa 1425-80), which is divided into five Prakasas, viz*
Prayaga, Purusottama (Puri ), Ganga, Gaya and Varanasi and
deals with topics like the purpose of pilgrimage, its prelimina-
ries, rites to be performed at the tirthas^ subsidiary holy places
at the principal tirthas^ etc., make prominent mention of the
Garigasagara tirtha. The most valuable information about the
religious and monastic establishment at Garigasagara, one of the
greatest and oldest Indian tirthas^ is however found in the Tirtha-
sdra composed by the Bengali writer Bhavadeva Nyayalahkara
in 3§aka 1651 (1729 A.D ). This work shows that, as late as
the first half of the eighteenth century, considerable parts of the
old city existed and that people flocked to the tirtha with a desire
to touch the feet of Pitamaha (Brahman), to have a bath
in the waters of the Mandakini (Ganga on her way to Patala)
and to worship the images of Madhava (Visnu) named after
an ancient local king of that name, Amarai^ankara (l§iva),
Kapila (founder of the Sahkhya system of Indian philosophy,
mythologicaly represented as a sage indirectly responsible for the
digging up of the beds of the oceans by the sons of Sagara as well
as for the descent of the Ganga on the earth and regarded as
an Avatdra of Visnu), Skanda-Karttikeya and Hari (Visnu )-^
The city of Gangasagara seems to have been often encroach-
ed upon by the sea and affected by the occasional changes in
the surface of the land caused by the silting up of one or other
of the mouths of the Ganges and by the creation of new mouths.

I. Cf. XXII, p. 128 : ^ | ^

• • . qrrf%%q'5rfOTT cnrifw i i...

^ mmm: 1 1

GAKGA AND THE GANGARIDAE

223

The same reason seems to have been at the root of the rise, in
different ages in the neighbourhood, of such market towns
as the ancient Tamralipta, the medieval Saptagrama and
Hooghly and the modern Calcutta. But some of the old temples
and images at Gahgasagara survived as late as 1842 A.D. when
the remaining part of the ancient city was finally and completely
washed away by the waves of the sea.^ Just a year before the
remnants of the last temple were swallowed up, a very interesting
account of the 'Mela at Ganga Saugor’ appeared in the Friend
of India^ VoL VII, 1841, p. 70 : ‘'...a mere sandbank, about
a mile in length and about a quarter mile broad, of crescent
form with the wide sea opening in front and the back covered
by a dense jungle. At one corner stands the solitary temple
of the celebrated Sanyasi Cupil Mani (KapiIamuni)...Thc
temple is the last remnant of what has evidently been a large
monastic institution for devotees, the ruins of which may be
walked over at low water. These ruins show that the buildings
must have been very extensive as well as massy. . / ^ The Kapila
temple is said to have been 'built of Concha stone brought from
Orissa’ and was in a precarious condition 'soon to moulder
away.’ It was inhabited by a number of mendicants, some of
whom owed allegiance to a pontiff of distant Jaipur in Raja-
sthan. There were two stone images in the temple, one of
Kapilamuni and the other of 'Mahdeb’ (either Madhava, i.e.
Visnu, or less probably Mahadeva, i.e. Siva). The correspondent
of the Friend of India noticed an inscription in the temple, about
the letters of which he remarks, "...yet are they like neither to
things in heaven above or in the earth beneath, nor could the
Sanyasis themselves decipher the hieroglyphics.” The epigraph
was supposed to contain a date which was believed to corres-
pond to 430 or 437 A.D.^ The above shows clearly that the

1. JASB^ 1850, p. 538; IHQ^^ loc. cit.

2. JASBy loc. ciLy IHQ^y op. cit.y p. 129. Yule and Burnell, in the
Hobson^Jobsoriy s.v SaugoVy Sau^ot Island^ observe, ‘"It is said once to have
been populous, but in 1688 (the date is clearly wrong) to have been swept
by a cyclone- wave. It is now a dense jungle haunted by tigers.” Amongst
the quotations in this work from earlier European authors. Hedges speaks
of his visit in 1683 to the ‘Pagodas at Sagor\ He further says, “James
Price assured me that about 40 years since, when the Island called Gonga
Saugor was inhabited, the Raja of the Island gathered yearly lent out of it
to the amount of 2 lacks of rupees.” In i 705, Luillier spoke of the temple

224

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

sea washed away the most important sacred place in Eastern
India, associated with the names of an ancient Vahga king
called Madhava and the sage Kapila, just as Dvaraka, a West
Indian tirtha of all-India reputation, had been swallowed up by
the waves of the Arabian Sea. But whereas an entirely new
city, founded in the neighbourhood, was endowed by the people
of the Pascatya division of India with the name and sanctity of
ancient Dvaraka, the inhabitants of the Bengal delta did practi-
cally nothing to preserve the sacred memory of Gahgasagara.
The real purpose of pilgrimage to holy places in all the four
extremities of India was to travel over the length and breadth
of the whole land in order to know it properly and to feel
the fundamental unity of the various elements in the Indian
population. With the absence of Gahgasagara, there is no
ancient tirtha of all-India recognition in the eastern border of
the country to attract pilgrims from other parts of India. This
seems to be detrimental to the cause of the unity of the Indian
people. The East Indians should think of rebuilding the great
tiriha at the junction of the Gahga and the Sagara in all its
ancient glory.

at'Sagarc’ and of two famous ascetics residing there, while in 1727 Hamilton
says, ‘‘...among the Pagans, the Island Sagor is accounted holy, and great
number of Jougies (ascetics) go yearly thither in the months of November
and December to worship and wash in salt water, though many of them fall
sacrifices to the hungry tigers.” The account of Hedges suggests that the
Island was once severely hit by a cyclone about the middle of the seventeenth
cemtury.

Chapter XIV

ARIAKA, ALASANOA ANI> BARBARA

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea^ composed in the eighth
decade of the first century says, “Beyond the Gulf of

Baraka (Gvaraka in Kathiawar ) is that of Barygaza (Bharu-
kaccha, Bharoch or Broach on the mouth of the Narmada in
Southern Guj arat ) and the coast of the country of Ariaka which
is the beginning of the kingdom of Mambarus (apparently a
iSaka king) and of all India. That part of it (the kingdom of
Mambarus) lying inland and adjoining Skythia (Sakasthana in
the lower valley of the Indus ) is called Abiria (Abhira country ),
but the coast is called Syrastrene (Surastra or Kathiawar).”^

There is difference among scholars on the identification
of the land called Ariaka. Tassen took it to be a mistake for
Larika standing for Lata (the Nausari-Broach region of South
Gujarat), while Bhagwanlal Indraji considered it to be the
same as Aparantika (Aparanta or the Northern Konkan about
the Thana District).® The separate mention of both Ariake
and Larike in the Geography of Ptolemy (compK>sed about the
middle of the second century A.D. ) on the basis of material

1. Gf. Smith, EHI^ 19124, p. 245, note i- The refei ence in the
Periplus (SchofT’s trans., p. 42) to ‘Ozene, formerly a ro>aI capital’ shows that
the work had been composed before Gastana fXiastenes'j made Ozcnc
(Ujjayini in West Malwa) his capital in the second quarter of the 2nd century
A. O- since it appears to have remained the capital of Castana’s descen-
dants till their overthrow by Candragupta II about the close of the fourth
century A D See Sircar, Studies in Indian Coins^ pp- iifff

2. Schoff’s trans., p. 39. The Periplus also says, “In these places
there remain even m the present time signs of the expedition of Alexander,
such as ancient shrines, walls of forts and great wells.” These antiquities,
probably seen by the author himself, may be associated with Alexander's
stay in the land of the lower Indus for some months waiting for the Etesian
winds for the dispatch of a part of his forces under Nearkhus by the sea before
his own departure from India with the remainder of the army by land in
the year 324 B.G.

3. Schoff, op. cit.y

pp. 174-75; Smith, op. cit.y pp. 108-09-

226 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

collected a little earlier, however, suggests that Ariaka may
not stand for Lanka, The author of the Periplus^ it appears,
included Larika or Lata in Ariaka which has to be identified with
Aparanta, since Suppara (Surparaka, the capital of Aparanta)
was located in Ariaka as we shall see below.

Ptolemy first gives the places in Syrastrene (Kathiawar),
next those in Larike (Southern Gujarat) and then those of
Ariake which he calls 'Ariake of the Sadenoi’.^ In the land of
Larike, he locates the mouth of the river Mophis (Mahi) and,
on the Gulf of Barygaza in the same country (as we shall see
later), the mouth of the Namades (Narmada) and a locality
called Nausaripa (Navasarika, modern Nausari in the Surat
District). Larike is therefore undoubtedly the same as Lata.
On the other hand, the geographer locates in the coast of Ariake
the places called Souppara (Surparaka, modern Sopara in the
Thana District) and Semyla (modern Ghaul in the same Dis-
trict, 23 miles to the south of Bombay ).2 This Ariake is no
doubt identical with Aparanta or the Thana region (Northern
Konkan ).

The Periplus seems to include Ariaka, comprising Ptolemy’s
Larike or Lata, in the kingdom of Mambarus who had his capital
at Minnagara near Barygaza. Thus about 80 A.D., both Lata
and Aparanta appear to have formed parts of the Saka kingdom
of Western India. The same slate continued till the time of
the Ksaharata-lSaka ruler Nahapana (119-24 A.D.) who ruled
over wide areas of Western India as far as the Nasik-Poona region
of Maharashtra in the south. There is an early Jain tradition
that Nahapana had his capital at Bharukaccha which was re-
peatedly attacked by the Satavahana king of Pratis thana (i.e.
Gautamiputra jSatakarni, c. 106-30 A.D.), who ultimately con-
quered it.^ The partial destruction of Bharukaccha as a result
of this struggle may have led the next iSaka ruler Castana
(Tiastenes) to make Ujjayini (Ozene) his headquarters, as we
learn from Ptolemy’s Geography.

1. La Geographie de Ftolemee^ Vhide (VII. 1-4)3 ed. Rcnou, pp. 3-4
(Section 6).

2. Hippokoura (1x6® 45' — 19® 30'') is described elsewhere {op,cit.^ p.
36, Section 83 ) as the capital of Baleokouros, usually identified with Viliva-
yakura of the Kolhapur coins.

3. Of JBORS, VoL XVI, p. 288.

ARIAKA, ALASANI>A AND BARBARA

227

It will be seen that^ while the Periplus includes Arlaka in
the kingdom of Mambarus, Ptolemy mentions Ariake as the
land of the Sadenoi and apparently includes Larike in the
kingdom of Castana. A second section in Ptolemy’s Geography
says that, in the country of Larike, the market town of Barygaza
lay to the west of the river Namades (Narmada ) while, among
the towns lying to the east of that river, there v^ras Ozenc
(Ujjayini), the capital of Tiastenes (Castana).^

Who were the Sadenoi occupying Ariake when the Karda-
maka-Saka ruler Gastana was holding Larike about the forties
of the second century A.D. ? That they were no other than the
Satavahanas appears to be clear from a third section of Ptole-
my’s Geography wherein Baithana (Pratisthana on the Godavari
in the Aurangabad District of Maharashtra), capital of Siripto-
lernaios (§ri-Pulumavi who was the son of Gautamxputra
Satakarni and ruled in c. 130-59 A.D. ), and the town of Tagara
(modern Ter in the Osmanabad District of Maharashtra) are
located in the same country to the west of the river Bendas,^
The Satavahana occupation of Aparanta before the iSaka
conquest of Western India is referred to in the Periplus which
says. ^‘The market- towns of this region are, in order, after
Barygaza: Suppara (Surparaka, Sopara) and the city of
Kalliena (Kalyan in the Thana District, 33 miles north-east
of Bombay) which in the time of the elder Saraganus (an early
Satavahana king named Satakarni) became a lawful market-
town; but since it came into the possession of Sandanes (pro-
bably a governor or predecessor of Mambarus ), the port. is much
obstructed, and Greek ships landing there may chance to be
taken to Barygaza under guard.”®

About 124 A-D., the later iSatavahana king Gautamiputra
iSatakarni (c. 106-30 A.D.) overthrew the Ksaharata-Saka ruler
Nahapana and not only occupied the Nasik-Poona region and
Northern Konkan (Aparanta), but even succeeded in annexing

1. Renou, opxit ^ pp. 28-29 (Section 63 ^. Although Larike thus
seems to have comprised the Ujjayin' region, Nasika given here as a to\^n
in Lanke cannot be the modern Nasik in Maharashtra especially because
the Kardamaka-Sakas could not recover the Nasik-Poona region from the
5 atavahanas.

2. Pid.^ p. 33 Section 82;.

3. SchoiL 43. Kalyanais located in Aparanta in a Kanheri

inscription (Liiders^ List of Inscriptions, No. 1013

228 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Malwa (Akara and Avanti) and Kathiawar (Snrastra).^ But
Gautamiputra is known to have lost much of the conquered
territory to the Kardamaka-Sakas before his death about 130
A-D. In that year 3 . the dominions of Kardamaka Gastana and
his grandson Rudradaman (who ruled jointly with his grand-
father as a sub-king ) included Kutch, while the Junagadh
inscription (150 A.D.) states that Rudradaman twice defeated
Safakarni (Gautamiputra ^atakarni ) the lord of Daksinapatha^
though the latter was not extirpated because of the closeness of
relations between the two rulers. The inscription further says
that Aparanta and the other districts in the northern part of
Gautamiputra’s empire were then in the possession of the
Kardamaka-lSakas . ^

As regards the closeness of relations between Gautamiputra
iSatakarni and Rudradaman, we know that the former’s younger
son Vasisthiputra §atakarni married the latter’s daughter.®
The reference to two wars between Rudradaman (who was
originally a sub-king under his grandfather Gastana) and
Gautamiputra may suggest that there were two stages in the
reconquest of the northern districts of Gautamiputra’s kingdom
by the Kardamaka-Sakas. Probably the Malwa-Kathiawar
area was conquered before the conquest of Aparanta and the
neighbouring regions. The absence of any mention of La^a
in the list of territories in the possession either of Gautamiputra
or of Rudradaman appears to suggest that it was included in
the administrative unit of Aparanta as indicated by the state-
ment of the Periplus referred to above.

The question now is whether the whole of Aparanta was
reconquered by the Kardamaka-lSakas as suggested by the Juna-
gadh inscription or parts of it still remained in the hands of
Gautamiputra and his successors as is indicated by Ptolemy’s
Geography. It has to be noted that epigraphic records of the
Kardamakas are conspicuous by their absence in the Nasik-
Poona region and the Northern Konkan, while a number of
inscriptions of the successors of Gautamiputra Satakarni have
been discovered in the said areas. Thus we have the Nasik and

1. See The Age of Imperial Unity ^ ed- Majumdar, p. 201.

2. p- 183.

3. Loc, cit.

ARIAKA, AXASANDA ANB BARBAJIA

229

Karle (Poona District) inscriptions of Vasisfliipiitra Pulumavi
(c. 130-59 A.D.), the Kanheri (Thana District) inscription of
Vasisthiputra Satakarni (c. 159-66 A.D. )> the Nasik and
Kanheri inscriptions of Gautamiputra Yajtia ^atakarm (c* 178-
202 A.D. )y etc., etc.^ Formerly we had Saka type silver
coins of Yajha Satakarni, which were apparently issued for
circulation in areas previously under the Sakas and one of which
was found at the base of the ruined Buddhist establishment at
Sopara. This led to the belief that Yajha conquered Aparanta
from the Kardamaka-Sakas.*^ But coins of the same type
issued by Vasisthiputra Pulumavi and Vasisthiputra iSatakarni
have also been recently discovered.'^ Thus the Nasik, Poona
and Thana Districts appear to have remained in the posscssicm
of Gautamiputra and his successors. Ptolemy’s representation
of Ariake as the land of the Sadenoi (Satavahanas ) is there-
fore justifiable, while his inclusion of Larike (comprised in
Ariaka according to the author of the Periplus who, as we have
seen, seems to be supported by the iSatavahana and iSaJka
inscriptions) apparently in the kingdom of Tiastenes of
Ozene shows that the northern part of the Ariaka of the Pt^iplus
(i.e. Larike or Lata) was reoccupied by the 8akas.

According to some scholars, Ptolemy distinguishes Ariake
of the Sadenoi from Ariake of the Pirates, comprising the coast
country towards the south stretching as far down as the country
of Lymxrike (Damirika of the Periplus^ i.e. Tamil aka or Dravid^^)
which seems to have included the land of the Keralaputra (the
king of Kerala).^ This extension of Aparanta in the south
seems to be supported by Kalidasa’s Raghuvamia (IV.54-58)
wherein the river Murala is probably mentioned as the
boundary between Kerala and Aparanta.^

1. See Rapson’s Catalogue of Coins, pp. 1 -liii; Ep, Ind., Vol. XXXV,
p. 250; Sircar, Stuiies Indian Cams, pp. io7tf

2. Rapson, op.cit., p. cxxi.

3. Ep, Ind., Vol. XXXV, pp. 247 ff.

4. S. N, Majumdar Sastri, hlcCrindle' s Anct nt India as described by
Ptolemy^ p. 45. Gf. the Periplus locating Tyndis, one of the first markets of
Damirika, in the kingdom of Kerobothra ^Schoif, op cJ.. p. 44].

5- Mallinatha, the South Indian commentator of the Raghuiamsa,
regards the Murala as a river in the Kerala coun£r>, while the South Indian
product entitled Avaniisundarikathd speaks ol the sports of the Aparanta
elephants in the waters of the Alurala (cf. Sircar, Stltct Inscriptions, p. 453,
note I ) .

230 geography of ancient and MEDIEVAE INDIA

A large number of cities and towns in the vast area subdued
by Alexander the Great were called Alexandria after the mighty
conqueror. An Indian form of the name Alexandria is Alasanda
found in the Milindapanha and other works. It is sometimes
called the nagara (city or town) of the Yavanas (the Greeks
probably of Bactria and India ) and sometimes a dvtpa (a terri-
tory between two rivers or an island)-^ Since however, there
were several Alexandrias even in the north-western areas of
India and in Afghanistan (both comprised in the Uttarapatha
division of Bharatavarsa), there has been difference of opinion
among scholars as regards the idetification of Alasanda men-
tioned in Indian literature.

Among the Alexandrias of Uttarapatha, mention may be
made of — (1 ) Alexandria-under- the-Caucasus (Hindukush),
identified with modern Charikar or Opian near Kabul; (2)
Alexandria-among-the-Arachosians, identified with modern
Kandahar; (3) Boucephala Alexandria on the western bank
of the Jhelum; (4) Nicia (Alexandria) on the eastern
bank of the Jhelum ; (5 ) Alexandria at the confluence of the
Chenab and the Indus; (6) Sodrian Alexandria below the
confluence of the Punjab rivers; and (7 ) several cities and towns
built by Alexander the Great in the land watered by the mouths
of the river Indus.s The most important Alexandria outside
the above zone is of course the celebrated city of that name in
Egypt.

About the Alexandrian towns in the lower valley of the
Indus, Cunningham says, *Tn the time of Alexander, the only
place of note in the Delta was Pa tala; but he is said to have
founded several towns himself during his long stay in Lower
Sind, waiting for the Etesian winds to start his fleet. Unfor-
tunately, the historians have omitted to give th% names of these
places. Justin alone notes that on his return up the Indus, he
built the city of Barce .... Ptolemy has preserved the names of

1. Gf. Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, s. v. Alasanda.

2. See Cambridge History of India, ^Fo\, I, pp. 376 fF.; Smith, Early
HistoTy of India, 1924, pp. 52, 72, iiofT.; Raychaudhuri, Political History of
Ancient India, 1938, p. 212.

ARIAKA, ALASANX>A AND BARBARA

231

several places, as Barbara, Sousikana, Bonis and Kolaka, of
which the first is most probably the same as ‘Barbarike empor-
ium’ of the Periplus and perhaps also the same as the Barce of
Justin.”^ According to Ptolemy, Patala and Barbarei stood
on islands in the Lower Indus.-

It is interesting to note in this connection that a people
called Varvara or Barbara is well knowm from ancient and
medieval Indian literature. Pargiter says, “The Varvaras
are generally mentioned in conjunction with the Sakas or
Yavanas (Sabha-P., XXXI, 1199; Vana-P., GGLIII, 15254;
3anti-P., GGVII 7560-61, etc. ) ; and from the allusions^ it appears
that they were mainly a western or north-western race.’^®
The Puranas also mention the Varvaras along with the Sakas
or the iSakas and the Yavanas,^ while in late medieval works,
they are not only associated with Sauvira (Lower Indus valley
to the east of the river) and Lata (Southern Gujarat), but
are also mentioned between Lata and Saindhava (Sind or
the Lower Indus valley to the West of the river) and placed
between two localities called Mayapura and Saptasrhga.^
Since these Varvaras apparently lived in the lower valley of
the Indus, there seems to be no difficulty in associating them
with the city of Barbara probably founded by Alexander the
Great in the same area.

As regards the identification of Alasanda mentioned in
Indian literature, the general tendency among scholars now
is to regard it as the same as Alexandria-under-the-Gaucasus
near Kabul.® Of course the recent discovery of an edict of
Asoka in Greek and Aramaic (meant apparently for the Yavana
and Kamboja subjects of the Maurya emperor ) at Kandahar
has made it possible to think that Alexandria-among-the-Ara-
chosians was the headquarters of the Yavana-Kamboja province
in Asoka’s empire.*^ But Sylvain Levi has emphatically dec-

1. Ancient Qeof^mphv of India ^ ed Sastri, p 3^^)*

2. VII.1.59; cf. Smith on Alexander's haven ciL. pp. iio-ii).

3. Markandeya Purdna^ trans., p. 319? note 7.

4. See abjve, p. 30, note i ; p- 67, note 9.

5. Ibid.^ pp. 71, 79-^0, 106.

6- See, e.g.5 Cambridge History of India^ \ ol. I, p.

7. Parana^ Vol. V, pp. 251 ff-

232 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

lared that Alasanda of the Indian literature is identical with
Alexandria in Egypt.^

Levi’s theory is primarily based on the evidence of the
Milindapanha which mentions Alasanda in three different
passages. In the first of these passages, the Yavana king
Milinda (Menander) says that his jdta^bhumi (land of birth)
was Alasanda-dvipa which was 200 yojanas Ifom tSakala
(Sialkot in the Punjab), the capital of the Indo-Greek king.^
Levi points out that the Chinese translations of the Milinda--
panha give the distance between Alasanda and iSakala as 2000
yojanas which would suit a distant locality like Alexandria in
Egypt. But the distance of 200 yojanas given in the Pali text
cannot possibly be discarded without sufficient reason, and
Levi’s argument on this point is not strong enough as we
shall presently see.

The second passage in the Milindapanha mentions Alasanda
in the following list of territories — iSaka-Yavana, Gina-Kirata,
Alasanda-Nikumba, Kasi-Kosala, Kasmira and Gandhara.^
The most interesting feature of this list is that Alasanda is
mentioned here separately from the lands of the iSakas and the
Yavanas. This seems to suggest that Alasanda, associated with
the Yavanas, lay outside the Indian Yavana country which
included Sakala according to the Milindapaftha, This fact, how-
ever, does not definitely suggest its identification with Alexandria
in Egypt.

More important is the third passage saying how a sea-
faring merchant could visit the following lands in course of his
voyage — ^Vahga, Takkola, Gina, Sauvira, Surastra, Alasanda,
Kola-pattana and Suvarnabhumi.^ Since Alasanda is here
represented as situated on the sea-shore, Levi thinks that it is
certainly identical with Alexandria in Egypt. But there is
another passage in the Milindapanha which seems to go clearly
against the above identification.

1. Indian Historical Quarterly y VoL XII, pp 124 flf. But see the views
>f Sastri m Cunningham, op. cit., pp. 692 ff.

2. Ed. Trenckner, p. 82.

3. Ibid . p. 331.

4* Ibid., p. 359* The identification of Yahga with the deltaic region
of South Bengal is not less satisfactory than that with the Banka Island.

ARIAKA, ALASANDA AJJD BARSAHA

233

After declaring that Alasanda-dvipa was the land of his
birth, Milinda states that his jdta-nagara (the township where
he was born) was Kalasigrama which bears an Indian name
and could not have been situated in the Egyptian Alexandria
or in its neighbourhood.^ There is moreover some evidence
to show that Alasanda was situated near about the mouths of
the river Indus.

The Kautiliya Arthasdstra mentions two kinds of prmdla
(coral), viz. alakandaka (v. L alakandraka^ alaksandraka) and
vaivarnika (v.l. vaivalguka)^^ and Levi is certainly right in
regarding the name Alakanda, from which alakandaka is derived,
as identical with Alasanda. Levi has also drawn our attention
to Bhattasvamin’s commentary on the Arthaidstra^ which ex-
plains alakandraka as follows — Alakandro Varvara-^kule samudr-^
aikadeiahi tatra jatam^alakandrakam^ '^Aiakandra is a part of the
sea near the shore in Varvara; the coral produced there is
called alakandraka,^^ This suggests that Alakanda= Alasanda
was a locality on the sea-shore in the Varvara country which,
as we have seen, lay near about the mouths of the Indus. This
small territory seems to have been subject to Scythia or Indo-
Scythia in the age of the Periplus and Ptolemy^s Geography*

L6vi, however, says, ‘‘^The coast of Barbara, Barbaria of
the Periplus^ is the coast of Somali on the Gulf of Aden where the
port of Berbera still preserves the ancient name.’*® In his
opinion therefore, Alakanda == Alasanda has to be identified
with Alexandria in Egypt. But the distance between Alexan-
dria and Berbera being about 2000 miles, there is really no
sense in locating the former on the coast of the latter. More-
over, Varvara in the Lower Indus Valley was wcll-kncwn to
the Indians till the late medieval period, so that a fear of
confusion would have prevented Bhattasvamin from applying
the same name to the Berbera coast nearly 2000 miles away.
In these circumstances, if the Chinese versions of the Milinda-
panha locate the birth place of Mi-lan (Milinda) on the sea-

1. Ibid.y p. 83. The existence of some Brahmanas in the population
of the Egyptian Alexandria in Roman times can hardly explain the nomcnr
clature of Kalasigrama,

2. Ed. Shamasastri, p. 78 J loc, ciL

3. Op. cit , p. 129.

2^4 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

shore’ % as Levi points ouL^ Kalasigrama in Alasanda-dvipa
may have been a place in Lower Sind,

In this connection, Levi further draws our attention to the
fact that, according to the Periplus^ the Mediterranean coral
was imported to the Indian ports (including Barbaricum ) which
did not export coral outside, while Pliny also refers to the
export of coral by the Gallic people to India. But this appa-
rently refers to the vaivarnika coral of the Arthasdstra:, which
Bhattasvamin explains as follows — Tavana-dmpe Vaivarna-ndmo
samudr^aika--deiahi tatrabhavam vaivarnikam^ ^‘a part of the sea
in Yavana-dvipa is called Vivarna; coral produced there is
called vaivarnika ^ If then the alakandraka coral was the pro-
duct of the Mediterranean, as Levi thinks, where could the
vaivarnika coral of Yavana-dvipa have been fished ? Yavana-
dvipa here seems to indicate the Roman world. The Garuda
Purdna (Ch. 80 ) also mentions the following places as the source
of coral — Kerala and other (Indian) territories as well as the
Nisaka, Romaka (the Roman empire) and Devaka countries.
If coral, possibly fished near Barbaricum, was not exported
outside, the reason may be that it had a greater demand in
India itself.

Levi points out that early Jain literature mentions alisarh-
daya or alisarhdaga as the same as or as a variety of cavalaka or
chick pea and regards the name as derived from Alexandria in
Egypt.^ But the grain seems to have been an Indian produce
(probably growing in the Lower Indus valley), and there is
perhaps no reason to associate it with Alexandria.

A tradition regarding the existence of the Yavanas in the
Lower Indus valley in the age of the Guptas seems to be known
to Kalidasa’s Ragkuvarhsa, Canto IV- Verse 60 says that Raghu
started from Aparanta (Northern Konkan ), by the land-route, to
Persia to conquer the Parasikas. The preference of the land-
route to the sea-route is explained by verse 61 which states that
Raghu wanted to frighten the Yavana girls as it were. The

1. Op. cit., p. 126.

2. Ibid., pp. 129-30.

3. Ibid., pp. 127-28.

ARIAKA, ALASAiSTDA AND BARBAltA

2^5

stanza suggests that, in going to Persia from the Northern
Konkan^ Raghu had to cross the country of the Yavanas in the
lower valley of the Indus, with whom he had no occasion to
fight. ^ It is tempting to associate these Yavanas with the Var-
vara country in which Alasanda was situated.

I* Sircar, IThe Successors of the Sdtavdhanas in the Lower Deccan^ Pi -
'^25-26; olso Studies in the Socte^ and Administration qf Andnet and Medieval
Indta^ Vol. i — Society^ pp- 71-72.

Chapter XV

VAHLIKA, VAHIKA ANI> GURJARA

Elsewhere we have tried to show that very often in ins-
criptions and literary works we get, in connection with the
description of a powerful king’s dig-vijaya (conquest of the four
quarters, or of "the whole earth’ ), the traditional boundaries
of the conventional cakravarti’-k^etra?- These boundaries are
generally : (1 ) the Himalaya, Badarikasrama on the Gan-

dhamadana, the country near the Varhksu (Oxus), or the like,
in the north; (2) the Udaya mountain (mythical), the Eastern
Sea (Bay of Bengal ), the Eauhitya, Vahga, or the like, in the
east; (3 ) the Malaya mountain, the Mahendra mountain, the
Southern Sea (Indian Ocean), Ceylon, or the like, in the
south; and (4) the Asta mountain (mythical), the Mandara
mountain (mythical ), the Western Sea (Arabian Sea ), the
Parasika country, or the like, in the west. In that connection,
we have also tried to prove that the Meharauli pillar inscription
describing the dig-vijaya of a king named Candra (i.e. Candra-
gupta II ) in the verse :

gives the following boundaries of the Cakravarti’-k^ctra : ( 1 )
Vahlika (spelt also with b for v and i for f) in the north;
(2) Vahga in the east ; (3) Southern Sea in the south and
(4 ) the seven mouths of the Indus (all falling into the Western
or Arabian Sea) in the west. The Vahlika-Bahlika-Vahlika
Bahlika country is certainly the modern Balkh region on the
Oxus in the northern part of Afghanistan.^

I. See above, pp. 8 ff.

a- Corp. Jns. Jnd,^ Vol. Ill, p. 141, verse i ; JRASB, Letters, Vol. V,
* 939 >PP* ff**; above, p. 10.

3. See above, p. 32, mote 6.

237

VAHLIKA, vAHIKA AND GURJARA

According to a celebrated historian/ the country of the
Vahlikas mentioned in the Meharauli pillar inscription, which
speaks of the pillar being raised on the Visnup>ada, has to be
placed on the Beas (Vipaia) on the strength of a verse found
in the Rdmayana as follows :

‘^‘^They went through the Valhika country to Mount Suda-
man, viewing Visnupada and also the Vipasa and the

And the following conclusion has been drawn on the basis
of it: ''It will be seen from this verse that Visnupada, Vipasa
and iSalmali, if not even Sudaman, were all in the Vahlika
country and close to one another. ...... .these places were in

the close proximity of the Vipasa which, we know, is the modem
Beas, where it is joined by another river, the iSalmali/’^

The suggestion that the country watered by the Beas was
called Vahlika or Bahlika is however certainly wrong. Numerous
passages can be quoted from the epic, Puranic and Classical
Sanskrit literature to prove that the Punjab =Pahcanada, 'the
land of the Five Rivers’ (one of the five being the Beas ), was in
ancient times called the Vahika country, and there is absolutely
no doubt that the reading Vdhlikdn in the passage quoted from
the Rdmayana is a mistake for Vdhikdn, A flood of light on the
ancient Vahika country and its people is thrown by several
chapters of the Karna-parvan of the Mahdbkdrata. We have
therein (Gh. 44) the following verses regarding the geography
of this country :

ftwr: i

d f ? Ci42lcr il

4 : * *

qw jPTW'niT ^TFcr f^l’RFlT I

^ #

1. See D. R. Bhandarkar in Journ Andk. Hist. Res. Soc,^ VoL X, pp.

86 fF.

2. RdmaymUy II. 68, verses 18-19.

3. Op. cit.y p. 87-

238

GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

^ qY«5Vf i

5?ra-? f^rrwr =sr ^eflnr-u^ 1 1 ^ ?

^rs[ - ^T4t T r^fcPFaT f^^-^qissr ^1%!%^: I

arrCgT fTR- ^ q-f JT 1 1 ^'R

♦ * *

q -- y^i ?T gf r ^ fiT:^ qtgrRT I

sTRgT ^ 1 1 vo

The above verses and several others from the K.arna parvan
(Chs. 44-45 ) prove that the kingdom (or the people ) over which
§alya ruled was generally referred to as Pancananda or Vahika
and specifically as Madraka, Jartika and Aratta. In other
words, the Madrakas, Jartikas and Arattas were generally
designated as Pancanada and Vahika. The Madraka or
Madra people lived in the land around Sakala (modern Sialkot )
while the Jartikas are the modem Jats. There is however one
verse which suggests that Vahika was originally the name of a
country or people on the Beas (Vipasa) :

?rrR- fNnrg- fw^irnf t

?rq1vRir ?Tcrr snsnw:

“In the Vipasa, there were two Pisacas named Vahi and
Hlka ; their descendants are the Vahikas who are not the
creation of Prajapati.”

The geography of this well-known Vahika country has been
discussed by a number of scholars. Reference may be made to
Cunningham’s Ancient Geography of India, Calcutta, 1924, pp. 247,
686-87, and V. S. Agrawala’s ‘Patanjali and the Vahika-
gramas’ in the Indian Culture, Vol. VI, 1939, pp. 129 ff. In view
of the voluminous evidence regarding the existence of a Vahika
country near the Vipasa, no Vahlika (which is no doubt a mis-
lection for Vahika) country can be located in the same region
on the strength of a solitary passage of the BMmdyana.

If the Vahikas were originally a people living on the Beas,
we have to explain how the sense of the word Vahika expanded
so as to indicate all the tribes living in Pancanada, i.e. the
Punjab. It is interesting in this connection to note that the
Mahabhdrata sometimes uses the terms Vahika, Madra, Jartika,

1. Mahabharata, Karna-parvan, Gh. 44, verse 10.

239

VAHLIKA^ VAHIKA AND GURJARA

Aratta and Pancananda synonymously. It therefore apf>ears
that the lands of the tribes which lived close to one another in
the Punjab became in course of time moulded into a big kingdom
under the powerful kings of Sakala (Sialkot). As Vahfka was
beyond Kuruksetra and therefore lay outside the boundary
of Brahmavarta,^ its analogical connection with the word
bahis may have been another cause of the expansion of its geog-
raphical sense.

Furdoonjee D. J. Paruck refers to a drachm which he
originally attributed^ to the SaSsanian emperor Hormazd II
(303-10 A-D.), but was later inclined, after further study, to
assign to Hormazd I (272-73 A.D. In the legend of the coin
in question, Paruck reads the names of three territories forming
parts of the Sassanian empire as Inde, Iradate and Harezi, which
he identifies respectively with Sindh, Multan and Rajputana.
Whatever, however, be the value of the reading and interpreta-
tion of the names Inde and Iradate^ there is absolutely no doubt
that the suggestion regarding the third name is wrong.

Paruck says, “The reading of the word in the second line
on the upper part of the reverse remained for a long time comp-
letely illusive ; but now I am able to propose the reading
HREZI. According to all the early Arab geographers, the old
name of Rajputana was Haraz. It is probable that the original
form of this name was Harez, as on this drachm/’^ He refers to
Cunningham’s Ancient Geography of India^ Calcutta, 1924, p. 358,
and quotes the following passage in support of the identification
of Harez and Rajputana : “The name of the country is some-
what doubtful as the unpointed Arabic characters may be read
as Haraz or Hazar and Kharaz or Khazar as well as Jurz or
Juzr. But fortunately there is no uncertainty about its position

1. Ibtd., VII. 41. 6

2. Gf. Revue Archeoh^tque^ 193*^3 PP* ~34 fi-

3- Vol. I, pp.

4. Loc, cit., pp. 61-62.

240 GEOGKAPHV OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

which is determined to be Rajputana by several concurring
circumstances.

It is a matter of regret, however, that Cunningham’s views
have not been quoted faithfully and completely. For, immediately
before the above passage, he says, ^"All the early Arab geogra-
phers speak of a kingdom named Jurz or Juzr which from its
position would appear to be the same as the Kiu-che-lo of Hwen
Thsang.” Cunningham further says, ^‘Edrisi, quoting Ibn
Khordadbeh, states that Juzr or Huzr was the hereditary title
of the king as well as the name of the country. This statement
confirms my identification of Juzr with Guzr or Gujar, which is
a very numerous tribe whose name is attached to many impor-
tant places in North-West India and the Punjab and more
especially to the great peninsula of Gujarat.”

It will be seen that, according to Cunningham, the ancient
name of Rajputana was Gujar or Gurjara (Gurjara)^ and not
Harez as stated by Paruck. It is a matter of satisfaction that the
suggestion of the great Indologist, made on insufficient data as
early as 1871 A.D., has later been proved definitely by unquestion-
able epigraphic evidence. The editor of the Calcutta edition of
Cunningham’s work, consulted by Paruck, remarks, ^'The ins-
criptions of the 9th century also applied the name Guqara-
rastra to the country north of Ajmer and the Sambhar Lake.*
Its capital Pi-lo-mo-lo is modern Bhinmal, 25^ N. and 76® 16'
E., a town in the Jashwantpur District of Jodhpur.^ Bhinmal
or Bhillamala, the plateau of the Bhiis, was the capital of the
Guijara-Pratiharas who transferred their headquarters to
Kanauj.” The statement, although it confuses the Gurjara-
Pratihara empire with the Gurjara country and is not strictly
accurate, is sufficient to disprove Paruck’s contention.

That Hiuen-tsang’s Kiu^-che'-lo and its capital Pi^lo-mo-lo
stand respectively for Gurjara and Bhillamala is supported by the
Daulatpura inscription^ of 843 A.D., according to which the
Guijara-Pratihara emperor Vatsaraja {circa 775-800 A.D. )
granted the village of Siva in the Dendavanaka vi^aya (modern

1. In South Indian inscriptions, the name is generally spelt Gurjara.

2. Imp. Gaz- Ind.y Vol. XII, p. 350.

3. Ihzd., VoL IV, p. III.

4. Ep. Ind., Vol. V, p. 211 fF.

241

vAhlika, vAhika and curjara

Didwana in the former Jodhpur State, Rajasthan) of the Gur-
jaratra bhumu In the days of the early Arab travellers, there-
fore, the name of the Jodhpur region of Rajasthan wa 4 S Guijaratra
or Gujarat, a name derived from that of the Guijara people.
That, however, this country included the former Alwar and
Bharatpur States in Eastern Rajasthan is suggested by the cele-
brated Arab writer Al-Biruni who composed his work on India
about 1030 A.D. Al-Biruni refers to *Bazana, the capital of
Gujarat’ and places it 25 farsakh (about 92 miles) to the north
of the kingdom of Mewar (capital Jattaraur, i.e, Gitrakuta or
Chi tor) and \b farsakh (about 55 miles) from Rajauri lying on
the route towards the south-west from Kanoj.^ Rajauri {{.e.
Rajyapuri ) is no doubt identical with Rajyapura (modern Rajor-
gadh in the former Alwar State of Rajasthan) which was the
capital o? Mahdrdjddhirdja Mathanadeva of the Guijara-Pratihara
lineage according to an inscription of 960 A.D.® Al-Biruni
further says, *'The distance between Mathura and Kanoj is
the same as that between Kanoj and Bazana, viz. 28 farsakh
(about 103 miles The above indications show almost
beyond doubt that Bazana is no other than the modern
Bayana in the former Bharatpur State of Rajasthan. It may
be pointed out that Bazana seems to have ceased to be the
capital of ‘^Gujarat’ in the days of Al-Biruni, as he says, ^'This
town is called Narayan by our people. After it had fallen
into decay the inhabitants migrated to another place called
Jadura.”^ The name Narayana was apparently derived from a
celebrated temple of that god at Bayana. As regards Jadura,
Sachau says, ‘'This reading is uncertain. Perhaps all the signs of
the Arabic text are the name of a place.”® It, however, seems
that the reading intended is Rajauri, i.e. Rajyapuri or Rajyapura
which is the same as the modern Raj or. It may further be
pointed out that Al-Biruni’s Canon Masudicus gives the latitudes
and longitudes of both Bazana (or Narayana) and Bhillamala, lon-
gitudes being reckoned from the coast of the Atlantic and Bagdad

1. Gf. Sachau, AlberunVs India^ Vol. I, p. 202; Sircar, Cosm, Ceog. E.
Ind. Lit,^ p. 176.

2. Ep. Ind,^ Vol- III, p. 266.

3. Sachau, loc. cit ; Sircar, loc. cit.

4. Loc, cit,

5. Sachau, op, cit. ^ Vol. II, p. 319.

242 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANI> MEDIEVAL INDIA

being located at 70®.^ As, however, the longitude recorded for
Bazana is palpably wrong, it hardly helps us in locating the city.

The above discussion will show that Harez was never the
name of Rajputana. According to the combined testimony
of inscriptions and of Hiuen-tsang (7 th century) and Al-Biruni
(11th century), the capital of Guijaratra or the Gurjara country
in Rajputana was at first at Bhinmal in the former Jodhpur
State, next it was at Bayana in the former Bharatpur State,
and afterwards at Rajorgadh in the former Alwar State. The
Arab geographers, therefore, speak of Gurjara and not of Harez.

Loc* ciU

Chapter XVI

MALAYA AlSfB MAHISA
I

There has been some criticism of the view that ‘Malaya is
the southern end of the Western Ghats’, The critic says, “The
Puranas do not help us in locating the Malaya mountain.”^
But his views appear to go against the evidence supplied by the
Puranic sections on Indian geography.

It is well known that the Markandeya^ Vdyu^ Kurma, Alatsya,
Vdmana and Brahmdnda Puranas contain a long list and the Vi$nu^
Brahma and Siva Purdna:> a short list of the Indian rivers. Accord-
ing to both these lists, the rivers Klrtamala and Tamraparni issue
from the Malaya mountain.^ Even the shortest list of rivers
found in the Agni Purdna speaks of the Krtamala as rising from
the Malaya. Of the two rivers mentioned above, Tamraparni,
still known by practically that name, flows from the southern part
of the Western Gha^s to the Bay of Bengal. The celebrated ports
of Xorkai and Kayal stood on its banks. The identification of
the ELrtamala with the modern Vaigai running by Madurai or
Oaksina-Mathura is corroborated by the Caitanyacaritdmrta^ an
old biography of the Bengali Vaisnava saint Gaitanya (1485-
1534 A-D. )- It is clearly stated in this work that Gaitanya took
his bath in the waters of the holy Krtamala at Daksina-Mathura
in the course of his tours of pilgrimage in South India. ^

The evidence of the Puranas definitely locates the Kul-acala
or Kula-parvata (literally, a mountain associated with certain
tribes ) called Malaya, which was the source of the Tamraparni
and Krtamala (Vaigai) rivers running through the Pandya coun-
try, at the extreme southern end of the Western Ghats. ^ The
name of this mountain no doubt lies at the root of the names

1. See G. Kunhan Raja in JHQ^^ Vol. XXII, pp- 223-27.

2. See above, p. 60, note 3.

3. See loc. cit,; also p. 64, notes 4-'=i.

4. For the identification of the IVIalaya, see Raychaudhxiri, Ind.

Ant,, pp i( Q ff ; Par^ittr, Almk, Pui , trans. pp. 1.^7. 3 ^

Dict.^ s. V, See also above, p, (>o, notes 3 and G.

244 geographv of ancient and medieval India

Malayalam and Malabar; but reference has been made to certain
‘conflicting evidences’ that would suggest the location of the
Malaya elsewhere.^

As a matter of fact however the Kula or tribal mountain
called Malaya cannot be located in any other place excepting the
southern end of the Western Ghats although there were probably
other hills called Malaya which may have given rise to the ‘con-
flicting evidences’. We know that the hilly region of Central
Ceylon was known by the name Malaya and one of the heirs of
the Ceylonese kings was often styled Malaya-rdja. A Visnu-
kundin inscription speaks of Prince Madhavavarman II, who
had his headquarters at Amarapura (i. e. Amaravati near Vijaya-
vada), as Trikuta-malay-adhipati, probably indicating ‘governor
of the province of Trikuta-malaya’. Since the name Malaya is
derived from the Dravidian word malai meaning ‘hill’, it is not
improbable that this word afSxed to the end of the names of
certain South Indian hills was often Sanskritiscd as tnalaya and
thus gave rise to a confusion- The tendency to Sanskritisation
is still noticed in the name Madra-mandala applied to the
Madras territory (in spite of the fact that the ancient
Madra people lived in the Punjab with their capital at iSakala,

i. e. modern Sialkot), and we can understand the working of
the mind of a Sanskritist if he would refer to Tiru-malai and
Anna-malai respectively as ;§ri-malaya (or Tri-malaya) and
Anna-malaya. But there is absolutely no doubt as to the
location of the celebrated Malaya Kul-acala (Kula-parvata ) at
the southern end of the Western Ghats.

A famous historian has recently discovered the existence
of several hitherto unknown kings and ruling families of ancient
India such as Mahisa® (or Mahisya)® and Sebaka.* These
dynastic names, derived according to him from those of the pro-
genitors of the families in question, are said to have been found
on certain coins of about the second or third century A. D. A

1. Gf. G. Kunhan Raja in IHQ,, Vol. XXIII, p. 69.

2. V. V. Mirashi m JMSI, VoU XI, pp. i ff.

3. IHd, Vol. XXII, pp. 24 ff.

4. jmj, Vol. VIII, pp. 107 f.

mailaya and mamisa

245

proper examination of the coins has convinced us that the dy*
nastic or tribal name Mahi^a does not occur in the legend-^
But assuming that the reading of the name of the Mahisas is
justified^ a word may be said about the location of the country
associated with a ruling family or a people called Mahi:^.

The historian has quoted passages from the Ramdja^^
the Mahdbhdrata and the Puranas to show that the Mahii^
country ^was situated in [the] Southern Deccan^^ He further
saysj ^^The royal name Mahisa (or Mahisya) was probably
derived from the country of Mahisaka or Ivlahisa-mandala
where this family was ruling. In my previous article on this
Saka king Mana^ I followed Rapson in supporting that Mahimka
was the country round Mahismati, modern Ohkar Mandhata
in the Nemad District of the Central Provinces. Since then
the provenance of these coins has become known. As stated
before^ they were found in the excavations at Kondapur and
Maski in the Hyderabad State. The country under the rule
of the Mahisa dynasty seems therefore to have been the
southern portion of the Hyderabad State.’’® It may be pointed
out in this connection that there is definite epigraphic evidence
regarding the existence of a tract of land associated with a people
or a royal family called Mahisa in the old Mysore State which is
not very far from *the southern portion of the Hyderabad State’.

An inscription of the Kadamba king Visnuvarman I (about
the end of the fifth century)^ was found in a village in the
Tumkur Taluk of the Tumkur District in the northern part of
the old Mysore State. This is the Hebbata grant published in
the Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department for 1925.^
The grant was issued by Kadamba Visnuvarman I in his fifth
regnal year, when the king was staying at the adhi^thdna (mean-
ing ‘^a city’ ) of Kudalur. By this grant, Visnuvarman I created
an agrahdra of the village called Herbbata situated in the Satti-
palli-Jaripata division of the Mahisa viscya (district) and offered
it with dahsind and libation of water, in accordance with the

1. See Bp. /yzi.jVol. XXXV, pp. 69 ff ; Sircar, Stud. Ind, Coins, pp.
126 ff.

2. JNSI, vol. XI, p. 4.

3. Lqc. cit.

4. See The Successors of the Sdtavdhanas, p. 393.

5. See op. cit^, p. 98, Plate X.

246 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANI> MEDIEVAL IXTOlA

brahmadeya-nydja^ to a Yajurvediya Brahmana belonging to the
Badira family or clan and to the Gautama gotra. It seems clear
from this inscription that the present Tumkur area in the Mysore
State was known in the fifth century A.D. as the Mahisa terri-
tory which formed a part of the dominions of the Early Kladamba
kings. While discussing the evidence of this interesting inscrip-
tion, we observed elsewhere, “The name of the Mahisa vis ay a
(cf. Mahisaka of the Puranic lists) is evidently the source from
which the present Mysore (Mahisur) has derived its name."*"^
It seems to us that the original name of Mysore was derived
from the words Mahisa and ur and signified ^the city of the
Mahisas’- Whatever however be the value of this suggestion,
the Hebbata grant of the Kadamba king Visnuvarman leaves
no room for doubt that the northern part of the old Mysore
State was known in ancient times as the Mahisa country.
Whether this country included, towards the north, the present
Kondapur and Maski areas of old Hyderabad, at least in a
particular period of history, can hardly be determined in the
present state of our knowledge. But it is by no means impro-
bable. We know that, in ancient records, the extent of a country
is often differently indicated. Thus Tamraplipta is mentioned
in literature sometimes as an independent state, sometimes as
a part of Suhma and sometimes as a part of Vahga. Similarly,
Taxila (Taksasila) is sometimes represented as an independent
kingdom, sometimes as a part of Gandhara and sometimes as a
part of Urasa (roughly the modern Hazara District of the North-
West Frontier region of West Pakistan).^ This is no doubt due
to the fact, also supported by modern history, that a small king-
dom retained its old name even when it was expanded to cover
wide areas. It may be recalled in this connection that, with the
rise of Kanarese powers like the Calukyas, Rastrakutas and the
houses of Vijayanagara, the name Karnata and Kuntala extend-

1. The Successors of the Sdtavdhanas^ p. 293; alsop, 216, note.

2. See p. 216, note; also H. G. Raychaudhuri, Studies in Indian

Antiquities^ pp. 186 f, Raychandhmi further points out how the city of
Uragapura sometimes belonged to the GoU, but sometimes to the Pandya,
kingdom. Similarly Kotivarsa {the modern Dinajpur District) was some-
times included in the Pundravardhana bhukti^ but sometimes in Radha.
See also above, pp, 191-92.

MALAYA Atm MAHISA

247

ed over wide regions outside the Kannada-speaking area.^ Since
the English East India Company extended its power over
extensive areas of Northern India from their base in Bengal, the
Company’s dominions in North India, including the present
Bihar and the major part of Uttar Pradesh, were for a long time
known as the Presidency of Bengal.

Sometimes, however, it is seen that a tract of land, later
annexed to a kingdom, retains the name of the latter even when
the heart of the kingdom itself comes in a later epoch to be
known by a different name. We have referred above to the
more recent case of Karnataka in the Tamil land, which owes
its origin to the expansion of the Vijayanagara empire outside
the original Karnata country. The ancient names Andhra-
patha near the mouths of the Krsna, Satavahaniya-rastra or
iSatavahaniy-ahara in the present Bellary District and Nala-
vadi in the present Bellary- Anantapur region may possibly
offer older instances of the same type, as the hearts of the §ata-
vahana (Andhra) and Nala countries probably lay elsewhere.
But, in the absence of any clear evidence to the contrary, it is
possibly better, in the present state of our knowledge, to believe
that the heart of the ancient Mahisa country lay in the old
Mysore State.

The name Mahisa, applied to a people and their land,
must have originally derived from the totem of the said people.
It is thus possible to think that there were more settlements of
the Mahisa people in different parts of the country than one.
Mahismati on the Narmada seems also to owe its name to
the Mahisas. But there is as yet no genuine evidence (excepting
wrongly interpreted legends of a few coins) to show that the
southern part of the former Hyderabad State w^as known as the
Mahisa country.

I. Note how the name Karnataka (Carnatic) came to be applied to
the dominions of the Nawabs of Arcot in the Tamil country^. See above, pp.
190 ff.; cf. pp. 82 (verse 16), 96-97. Cf. aLo the case of Gandhara fRay-
chaudhuri, PHAI, 193^3 P- 202).

Chapter XVII

KRM11.A

The Monghyr plate of king Devapala (circa 810-50 A.D. ) of
the Pala dynasty of Bengal and Bihar was discovered as early as
1780. It was first published in 1788 in the Asiatic Researches^ Vol.
I, pp. 13 fF. The inscription was re-edited by F. Kielhorn in the
Indian Antiquary^ Vol. XXI, 1892, pp. 254 fF. ; by A. K.. Maitreya
in the Gaudalekhamdld^ B. S. 1319 (1913 A.D.), pp. 33 fF. ; and
by L,. D. Barnett in the Epigraphia Indica^ Vol. XVIII, 1925-
1926, pp. 304 fF.

The grant was issued by the Paramasaugata-Parame^vara-
Paramabhattdraka-Mahdrdjddhirdja Devapaladeva in the 33rd
year of his reign from his jaya-skandhdvdra at Mudga-giri, i.e.
modern Monghyr, the headquarters of a District of that name in
Bihar. By this charter, the Pala king granted the village called
Mesika-grama in favour of a Brahmana named Vihekarata-
misra. The village was situated in the visaya or district of Krmila
which formed a part of the bhukti or province of Srinagara. From
the inscriptions of the Palas, we come to know of the existence'of
two bhuktis or provinces in Bihar, viz., Srinagara-bhukti and
Tira-bhukti-^ The word tira refers to the banks of the Ganges.
Tira-bhukti is the same as the modern Tirhut Division and ap-
parently indicated parts of Bihar lying to the north of that river.
The expression Sri-nagara meaning ‘the illustrious city,’ z.^.,
the city par excellencey referred to the celebrated ancient city of
Pataliputra (of which the modem representative is Patna derived
from Sanskrit pattana or township) and the jSrinagara-bhukti
no doubt included the districts of South Bihar having their ad-
ministrative headquarters at the above city.^ Of the vi^ayas or
districts forming the Tira-bhukti in the age of the Palas, we know
of the Hodreya and Kaksa vi^ayas^ and, of those forming the

I. History oj Bengal, Vol. I, Dacca University, p. 273.

J2. Cf. the commentary on Vatsyayana’s Kamasuira, VI. 5. 30:

Mdgarikd Hi Fdiuliputrikdh, etc.

krmilA

249

;§rmagara-bhukti, such districts as Gaya-visaya^ Rajagrha-visaya
and Krmila-visaya are known from inscriptions.^ Of these
vi§ayas^ those of Gaya and Rajagrha can be easily identified as the
tracts of land round respectively the modern towns of Gaya and
Rajgir Rajagrha), the latter being now situated in the

administrative division known as the Patna District of Bihar.
But the exact situation of Kaksa vi$aya in the Tira-bhukti and
the Krmila-visaya in the Srinagara-bhukti could not be satisfac-
torily determined. Recently we discovered certain new inscrip-
tions of the Pala period, which throw interesting light on the
location of the Krmila-visaya,

About the beginning of January 1950, I visited, in course
of a search for inscriptions, certain villages in the neighbourhood
of the Kiul and Luckeesarai railway stations on the former East
Indian Railway (now Eastern Railway ) about the w^estern fringe
of the Monghyr District of Bihar. Long ago, Alexander Cun-
ningham made an epigraphical survey of many villages of South
Bihar and the interesting results of that survey are recorded in
his celebrated Reports. But it is doubtful if it was possible for
him to visit all the villages. Moreover, images both inscribed
and uninscribed, are being discovered every year in various
villages of that area at the point of the cultivator’s ploughshare
and the workman’s spade and a large number of them, dis-
covered after Cunningham’s survey, have accumulated in
many villages. There is no doubt that many of such images
have often been carried away from the find-spots by interested
persons; but the epigraphic survey conducted by me only in a
few villages convinced me fully that very good results may still
be obtained if the images (unfortunately broken in most cases),
scattered over almost all old villages in South Bihar, are made
the object of a careful search in the line initiated by Cunningham
more than eighty years back, but not seriously continued
afterwards.

There is a village called Valgudar (often said to be Var-
gujar), near Rajauna and Chauki, on the side of the railway
line between the Luckeesarai and Mankatha railway stations.
I visited the village on the 9th of January and discovered no less

I. Ray, Dynastic Hhtojy of J^orthem Indta^ VoL I, pp. 274, 400. For
the Hodreya-visaya, see Ep* Ind^, Vol. XXIX, p. 50.

25d GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

than three interesting inscriptions. A stone pedestal of a lost
image in a locality, called Sahgat owing to its being a Sikh
religious establishment in the village, was found to bear a very
important inscription dated both in the 18th regnal year of king
Madanpala of the Pala dynasty and in the §aka year 1083.
The importance of the date of this record has been discussed
elsewhere; but the fact it records is no less interesting. It says
that two Vaisnava brothers of a Brahmana family established
an image of the god Narayana at Krimila. The second inscrip-
tion discovered and examined by me at Valgudar was found on
a broken image of a goddess with a child on her lap and with a
lion as her emblem, lying in the veranda of the Kutchery of
Babu Dalipnarayan Sinha who was a zamindar of Bhagalpur, It
may be mentioned here that images representing the Devi with a
child seem to have been very popular in all parts of South Bihar.
We have noticed such images in many villages. One such image
is now in the Asutosh Museum of Indian Art of the University of
Calcutta, and it bears an inscription of the time of Ramapala,
The find-spot of this image also seems to us to be some village of
South Bihar. A similar image at Rajauna near Valgudar is
known, from the inscription on it, to have been called Pundes-
vari. It is possible that this rural deity, apparently not uncon
nected with the conception of Parvati with Skanda on her lap as
indicated by the theme of Kalidasa’s Kumdrasambhava^ and of the
Buddhist Hariti, was worshipped under different local names
in various places.^ The inscription on the Valgudar image
of the Devi with a child says that it was installed by a person
named Nrkatta at the adhi^thdna or city of Krmila. It may be
noticed that the spelling of the name in this record is the same
as in the Monghyr inscription of Devapala, although in the

I , A similar image, but with four arms and without the lion emblem,
was found near Dacca and has been tentatively identified by Bhattasali {Iconc-^
graphy, pp. 63 £f. ; Plate XX) with Hariti. Another form of the same
primitive Mother-goddess with a child on her lap was conceived with a
snake-canopy over her head and was worshipped both in Bihar and
Bengal. I found one such image on the bank of the Saihsarpokhri at
Luckeesarai. In Bengal, this deity later came to be identified with the snake-
goddess Manasa (cf. ibid,^ pp. 212 ff.; His, op, nt,, pp. 460 f-); but

that she was originally worshipped under different local names is s^iggested
by the Marail (Dinajpur District) image of the goddess known to have
been called Bhattini Ma^tuva.

KRMILA

251

Valgudar inscription of Madanapala’s time it is written slightly
differently. The word krmild means 'a fruitful woman’ or
place full of worms’ and the word krmi forming its first part is
sometimes also written as krimi. Our second inscription docs not
refer to the reigning monarch. Its palaeography however seems
to suggest a date earlier than the days of Madanapala. The
third inscription that I discovered at the same village was on a
stone pedestal of a lost image now being used by people as a
platform for washing feet in the compound of the house of Babu
Kesav Sinha. The inscription it bears says that the image in
question was installed at the adhi^thana or city of Krmila during
the rule of Dharmapala whose reign is now assigned to circa
770-810 A. D.^ The regnal year is not referred to.®

Now the above three inscriptions, all discovered in the
small village of Valgudar, show beyond doubt that the city of
Krmila or Krimila, headquarters of the visqya or district of that
name forming a part of the J§rinagara-bhukti within the domi-
nions of the Palas, stood either on the very site of that village or
on a site, parts of which are now occupied by the village. There
is a stone slab representing the twelve Adityas and containing
an inscription dated in the fifth regnal year of the Pala king
Surapala, probably the first king of that name w^ho reigned about
the middle of the ninth century, at the neighbouring village of
Rajauna. This inscription also says that the slab was installed
at Krmila, and it appears that the slab had been originally found
at Valgudar, but was later carried to Rajauna. It is however
not improbable^hat the site of the modem village of Rajauna
was also within the bounds of the ancient city of Kpnila, although
we are not quite sure about that. In any case, if the ancient city
of Krmila has to be identified with the present village of Valgudar
near Luckeesarai in the western fringe of the Monghyr District,
there is no diflficulty in locating the m§aya or district of that name
in the tract of land around that village, that is to say, roughly in
the western part of the Monghyr District, to the south of the
Ganges between the land round Patna and that round Monghyr,
It is quite probable that these two regions centering round Patna

1. History of Bengal ^ op, cti,, p. 177.

2 . The inscriptions have been published in Ep, InrL^ Vol. XXVIll,
pp. 137 fir.

252 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND 3VCEDIEVAL INDIA

(L e. ancient Srinagara) and Monghyr (ancient Mudgagiri)
formed separate vi^qyas within the jSrinagara-bhukti and were
known as the iSrinagara-visaya and Mudgagiri-visaya in the
age of the Palas- But on this point nothing can be said definite-
ly until further evidence is forthcoming.

The visaya of ELrmila or Krimila is also mentioned in the
Nalanda plate^ of Samudragupta who flourished in the fourth
century A. D. As however the charter is spurious and seems
to have been forged a few centuries after Samudragupta’s time^
It may or may not prove the existence of a visaya and therefore
of a city of the above name in the fourth century. But that both
existed before the Pala occupation of Bihar may be suggested by
the mention of the visaya on certain old seals found at Nalanda.^
The village of Kavala in the Krimila visaya known from one
such seal appears to be no other than the present Kawali not far
from Valgudar.

There is a tradition recorded in the Harivarhia (I. 31. 24-
28) and the Vdyu Purdna (99. 18-22).^ The Harivamia text of
the verses runs as follows :

Usinarasya patnyas^tu panca rdjar^i-varhiajdh |

Nrgd Krmt J^avd Darvd pancamt ca Drsadvati 1 1 1
UHnarasya putrds == tu panca tdsu kuUodvahdh \
tapasd vai sumahatd jdtd vrddhasya Bkdrata II 2
JVrgdyds^tu Mrgah putrah Krmydrh Krmir= ajdyata t
Mavdyds^tu JsTavah putro Darvdydh Suvrato — ^bhavat l( 3
Drsadvatyds=tu samjajne Sibir = AuHnaro nrpah 1
Sibes^tu Sibayas^tdta Todheyds==tu JVrgasya ha W 4:

JVavasya Navardstran^tu Krmes^tu Krmild puri I

Suvratasya tatk = Amba^thd II 5

The Vdyu Purdna offers the following variant readings:
Mrgd for jVVg^ in verse 1; jata’-vrddhas ^ca dhdrmikdh for jdtd
vrddhasya Bhdrata in verse 2 ; and the text of verses 3-4 as follows :
Mrgdyds^tu Mrgah putrah Kavdyd Nava eva tu I
Krrnydh Krmis = tu Darvdydh Suvrato ndma dhdrmikah * I 3

1. Select InscripttonSf p. 263.

2. Mem^ A.SJ,, No, 66, pp. 34, 54.

3. For a corrupt text referring to the tradition^, see Matsya Purdna, 48.
16 ff.; cf. Bhdgavata Purdna, IX. 23. 2 ff.

KRMILA

253

Dr^advati“Sutai^c = dpi ^ibir^ ~ AuJlnaro dmjah f

Sibelfi Sivapurarh khydtam Taudheyan = tu Mrgasya tu \l 4

According to this tradition, king Usinara of the Purn dy-
nasty had five queens, viz., (1) Nrga or Mrga, (2) Krmi, (3)
Nava, (4) Darva, and (5) Drsadvati, who gave birth res-
pectively to the following five sons, viz. (1) Nrga (or Mrga),
(2) Krmi, (3) Nava, (4) Suvrata and (5) Sibi (or Sivi)
Ausinara. 3§ibi was the lord of the J§ibi people or of the city of
Sivapura, while Nrga (or Mrga ) was the ruler of the Yodheyas
or of Yaudheyapura. The other three sons of Usinara, viz,
Nava, Krmi and Suvrata, were the lords respectively of
NavarHstra, Krmilapuri and Ambasthapuri.

Although the above tradition does not help us in locating
the city of Krmila, the Puranic writers appear to have believed
in its hoary antiquity. Early Buddhist works not only regards
Krmila as a very old city, but locates it on the Ganges in the
area witnessing the Buddha’s activities.

In the Buddhist canonical works in Pali, the name of the
city of Krmila is met with in the forms Kimild^ Kimmild and
Kimbild^ while the name of an inhabitant of the city is given as
Kimila, Kimmila, or Kimbila. It may be pointed out that
Malalasekera’s Dictionary of Pali Proper Names^ recognises the
spellings Kimila or Kimbila and Kimila or Kimbila^ but prefers
the forms Kimbila and Kimbila. J- Kashyap's edition of the
Pali texts, however, quotes all the three variants of the two
names, though it prefers Kimila and Kimila.^ We have
of course to admit that all the three variants of both the names
are correct- Kimila is the normally expected Pali form for
Sanskrit {or. Krimild). But the form Kimmild is derived

through the modified pronunciation of the Sanskrit name as
*Kirmila, while Kambila is derived through the intermediate
form Kimmila. The same is the case with the Pali forms of
the personal name Kxmila (or Krimila).

Two Suttas, entitled the Kimildsutta and KimilasuUa^ were

1 . Or

2. Or ^iveh.

3. Vol. I, pp. 604-06.

4. SaUapltaka^Anguttaranikdya^ I, pp. 55, 217; II, p. 486; Samyutta^
nikdya-Saldyatanavagga^ p. 164; ^fahdraggay p. 274^ ci.Vtnayapitaka~CuUoiagg€t^
p* 281 ; Mahdvagga^ p, 481.

254 GEOGRAPITY of ancient and medieval INDIA

preached by the Buddha when he was camping at the velu-vana
or nicelu-vana at the city of K.imila = Kimmila = K.imbila {i,e.
Krmila or Krimila) which is stated to have been situated on
the bank of the Ganges. The river is now at a short distance
from the villages of Valgudar and Rajauna, on the site of which
the ancient city stood. It is said that the city existed in the
time of Kasyapa Buddha Dasabala who was the twentyfourth
Buddha (the third of the present aeon called the Bhadra-kalpa)^^
the twexityfifth and last of the Buddhas being Gautama
(r, 566-486 B.G.). One of the celestial palaces seen by Nimi
when he visited heaven is said to have belonged to a Deva who
had originally been a pious inhabitant of Klrmila.^ ' The
Buddha is said to have been bom in a previous birth as Nimi who
later succeeded his father on the throne of Mithila.

It appears that the early Buddhists believed in the exis-
tence of the city of Krmila before the days of the Buddha. The
only indication regarding the location of the city in the Buddhist
works is of course that it lay on the bank of the Ganges. But
it is clear that it lay in the area which was the sphere of the
Buddha’s activities. It is well known that, according to early
Buddhist works, this area comprised the six great cities of (1 )
Gampa,® capital of the Ahga country in the Monghyr-Bhagalpur
region in East Bihar which was annexed to the kingdom of
Magadha (Patna-Gaya region of South Bihar) about the
close of the sixth century B. G,; (2) Rajagrha (modern

Rajgir in the Patna District), the older capital of Magadha
before it was transferred to Pataliputra; (3-4) iSravasti (modern
Set-Mahet on the borders of the Gonda and Bahraich Districts
of TJ. P. ) |ind Saketa (near Ayodhya in the Fyzabad District,
U.P. ), both in the kingdom of Kosala,^ (5) Kausambi
(modern Kosam on the Jamuna, about thirtyfive miles to the
west of Allahabad, U. P. ), the capital of the Vatsa country
annexed to Avanti after the middle of the sixth century B.C.;
and (6) Varanasi (U-P. ), the capital of the kingdom of

I- Malalasekera, op^ cit,^ s. v. Kimbila and Kasyapa.

2. Ibid,, s. V. Mimi,

3. Carnpa has been located near Bhagalpur. See above, p. 36, note
5; P- 90.

4. Sravasti was the capital of the Kosala king Prasenajit who was a
contemporary of the Buddha.

KRMILA

255

^K.asi which was annexed to the Klosala kingdom about the
close of the sixth century B.C.i Thus the sphere of the
Buddha’s activities covered Bihar and the eastern part of U.P.

the city of Krmila was no doubt situated in this area.®
The location of the city at the site of the modem villages of
Valgudar and Rajauna in the western fringe of the Monghyr
District, to the south of the Ganges, does not militate against
Buddhist evidence.

1. Suttanipdta-Dighanikdya-AIakdvaggai pp* 113* 130, At p, 175
of the same work, reference is made to the following big cities of the whole
of India ; (i) Dantapura of the Klalihgas: (2) Potana of the Asmakas;
(3) Mahi$mati of the Avantis; (4) Roruka of the Sauvlras; (5) Mithila of
the Videhas; (6) Gampa of the Angas; and (7) Varanasi of the Kasis.
This list seems to refer to an earlier time when the kingdoms of Magadha
and Kosala were not very prominent.

2. With the spread of Buddhism, new traditions developed in order
to prove that the Buddha visited areas far away from the said region, e.g.
Khotan in Central Asia. Cf. below, p. 274.

Chapter XVIII

CAURASr

Caura^i as a geographical unit indicating a group of 84
villages is known from different parts of India. There is a group
of villages called Bhinaiki Caurasi near Ajmer in Rajasthan, and
it is probably mentioned as Gaturasiti in the fragmentary Barli
inscription^ of the first century B. G. Caurasi is also a Pargana
in the Mirzapur District of U.P., while Corasi (Caurasi)
is a Subdivision of the Surat District of Bombay. There is
a village called Caurasi in the Sadar Subdivision of the Puri
District of Orissa. This village likewise seems to have been
originally the headquarters of a geographical and administrative
unit consisting of 84 villages. That it had some importance
in the past is possibly indicated by its yielding of a copper-plate
inscription of the Bhauma-ELara monarch iSivakara II who
flourished about the end of the ninth century A.D.^ It seems
that there are other areas similarly called Caurasi in different
parts of the country. Catura^itiy the Sanskrit form of Caurasi^ is
found in a number of ancient Indian records.

A copper-plate inscription, dated Saka 734 (812-13 A.D. ),
of the Rastrakuta chief KLakka II Suvarnavarsa of Tata or S.
Grujarat was published in the Indian Antiquary^ Vol. XII, pp.
156 ff. It records the grant of the village of Vadapadraka in the
Ahkottaka eighty- four (A nko ttaka-caturalf ti-antarggata'- Vadapad--
rak-dbhidhdna’-grdma'). Ahkottaka is modern Akofa, a suburb of
Baroda (Vadapadraka). The Set-Mahet plate® of the Caha-
davala king Govindracandra, dated Vikrama Sarhvat 1186
(1130 A.D.), records the grant of certain villages in the Pattald
or district called Vada (or, Vaja) Caturaiiti, Another grant^ of
Madanapala dated Vikrama 1164 (1108 A.D.), similarly speaks

1. JBRS:, Vol. XL, Part i, pp. 3-4.

2. Gf. JBORS, Vol. XIV, pp. 292 ff.

3. Ep* Ind.^ Vol. XI, pp, 20 fi*.

4. Ibid^y Vol, XXXIII, p. 176. Gf, Ratnapura-caturasika and Gatu-
ruttaxa-caturasika in Gujarat (Majumdar, Chaulvkjas of Gujarat^ pp. 211-12),

CAURASf

257

of the gift of a village in Manighapura-caturasika, in which
Caturasikd is no doubt the same as Caturaiftikd or Caurdsu
It should, however, not be supposed that only the word ^eighty-
four’ is associated with the names of districts. We have numer-
ous other numbers similarly associated with geographical units. ^
A Pratijdgaranaka or Pargana within the dominions of the Para-
mara kings of Malwa is called Saptasiti-pratijagaranaka {i,e.
Pargana consisting of eighty-seven villages) in an inscription of
Vikrama 1331.^ But such numbers as 87 were not as popular
as 84 in the context of geographical names. The popularity of
constituting an administrative unit of 84 \dllages may be con-
nected with the conception of ^the typical clan-chicf’s estate of
84 villages’.®

In the inscriptions of the Kannada-speaking area, terri-
torial units are often mentioned along with a number exactly
as in Bhinaiki Gaurasi and Ahkottaka-caturasiti; e.g., Gatiga-
vadi ninety-six thousands, Rattappadi seven and a half lakhs,
Banavasi twelve thousands, Alande one thousand, Purigere
three hundreds, etc., etc. Similar instances are sometimes
found also in the records of other parts of the country. Although
there is possibly some exaggeration in some of these cases speak-
ing of very big numbers, there is no doubt that the reference
in such cases is to villages which may have been often very
small or even nominal. As regards territorial units with smaller
numbers, we may mention Nirugundagi twelve, Puriddha ten,
Tamba six, Kondavati two, etc., etc.

Considering the abnornally high numbers mentioned with
some of the names and the fact that it is palpably impossible

1. Gf. ^,5 the Patiala named Rudamaua-bayalisi in Govinda-

candra’s Kamauli plate of Vikrama iigo rii33 A. D.'i, published in Ep,
InL^ Vol. IV, pp. 111-12. In this name baydhst means ’’forty- two \ An ins-
cription (/«'/. Anf.^ Vol- XVIII., pp. 344 ff. of Paramara Udayadiya, dated
Vikrama 1229 A.D.j, mentions the area around Bhilsa in the former

Gwalior State as Bhaillasvami-mahadvadasaka-mancjala p. e,, the district
called Bhaillasvamin consisting of twelve subdivisions u It also mentions
a subdistrict consisting of sixty-four villages as the Bhrngarika-catuh^a sti
pathaka (cf. Ep. hid, Vol. XXX, pp. 210-11). A grant of the Somavamsi
king jMahasivagupta Yayati I {c, 970-1000 A. D.) of Orissa mentions a
district called Sannavati, ?. e, ninety-six (No. 27 of - 4 . i?. Ep,^ 1052-53,

App. A>

2. Ep, Ind,^ VoL XXXII, p. 140.

3. Gf. Ghoshal, Iphe A^rnnan SysUm in India ^ p,

258 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

to believe that the small district of Gahgavadi could actually
claim more than only a fraction of 96000 Villages* if a village
is understood in its modern sense, we were formerly reluctant to
take the word grama, even when specifically mentioned in such
cases, in the sense of village*; cf. the passage trayandrh Mahdrd^-
trakdmni navanavati-sahasra-grdma-bhdjdm occurring in the cele-
brated Aihole inscription’- of Pulakesin II and referring to the
three Maharastras as having no less than 99000 gramas. Thus
in the name Vengipura-visaya-grama-sahasra, sometimes called
Vengi-sahasra, we were inclined to interpret the word grama as
^what is the subject of an assessment.*^ This appeared to be
justified by the fact that the Malkapuram inscription® of Saka
1183 (1261 A. D.) refers to a grant of no less than three lakhs

of gramas in Dahala-mandala (the modern Jabalpur area)
lying between the Ganges and the Narmada by the ELalacuri
king Yuvaraja (I or II, probably the latter) in favour of a J§aiva
saint named Sadbhavasambhu,^ as it is impossible to believe
that even the whole kingdom of the Kalacuri king had nearly
20,000 villages in the modern sense of the term. There is,
however, some evidence to show that the word grama was used
in such cases in the sense of a village whatever its size and
nature may have been.

In the Aland (ancient Alande) inscription of Yuvaraja
Mallikarjuna, published in the Epigraphia Indica, VoL
X^XVIII, pp, 31 ff., Alande itself is mentioned as the modala-
vada or Toremost village* of Alande-sasira or ^Alande one
thousand*. This makes it clear that the geographical and ad-
ministrative unit of Alande consisted of one thousand vddas or
villages, of which the village of Alande was the foremost; that
is to say, it was the headquarters of the district in question. It
has been reported to us that the people of Kuknur even now
quote an old list, traditionally handed down, of the thirty
villages which formed the ancient administrative unit called
"Kuknur thirty* and that all these villages can be traced in the

r. Gf. Vol. VI, pp. I fF.

a. Gf. The Succe^iors of the SatavShanas, p. 400.

3- JAHRS, Vol. IV, pp. 156-57.

4. Gf.

GAtTRASl

259

area around Kuknur even to-day. It is also interesting to note
that an inscription mentions Kuknur as the foremost {i.e, head-
quarters ) of thirty gramas?-

The conclusion seems to be supported by a section of the
Skanda Purdna^ apparently interpolated into the original work
sometime in the medieval period.® This section says how the
nava’^khanda Bharata^ i.e, Bharata-varsa consisting of nine divi-
sions, was subdivided into seventy-two vibhedas or subdivisions,
and quotes a list of the seventy two (actually, seventy- five)
countries together with the number of gramas contained in each
one of them. The list is introduced by the verse :

^rrRt^ ^ i

?fwf ^ ^ 1 1

and ends with the following passage :

The second of the two passages is followed by the statement
that the entire Bharata-khanda had 967.200,000 pattanas (towns )
and 36,000 veldkulas (harbours). It can hardly be doubted that
the word grama has been used in this context in the sense of ^a
village\ But the fact that the list speaks only of gramas and
not of pattanas^ etc., seems to suggest that, for the purpose of
enumeration, the latter also were counted as gramas. The list
further shows that the traditional or conventional number of
gramas in a country as given in it could hardly have been true
if the word grama is taken exactly in its modern sense.

We quote below the list of countries together with the
number of villages in each one of them.

Number Name of Country Number of Gramas

1 .

Nivrt mandala

4 crores

Balaka desa

2i „

Khurasahanaka (K horasan)

1 T }>

Amdhala or Amala (sic — ^Andhra)

4 lakhs

5 .

Nepala

1 lakh

Kanyakubja

36 lakhs

I I'H M XII, 1876, p. 43 )-

2. Maheivara-khanda, Kumarika-khanda, Ch. 39, verses 127 fF.; cf.
A. B. L. Awasthi, Stud. Skand, Pur.^ pp. 24 if., for variant readings,

3. Gf. JRASP^ Letters, Vol. XIV^ 194S, p. 25,

GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

9 or 7 lakhs
9

Gajanaka or Majanaka (i.e. Ghazni or

Ghazna ) 72 lakhs

Gauda desa 18 ,,

Kamarupa 9 35

Dahala or Veda (sic — Cedi) 9

Karhtipura 9 35

Macipura (sic— Klamcipura ) 9 ,3

Oddiyana deia (in the Swat valley) 9 or 7 lakhs

J alandhara 9 ,3

Lohapxira (i.e, Lahore) 9 33

Paihbipura 7 33

Rataraja (i.e. Ratta-rajya, the Rastra-

kiita kingdom) 7 3 ,

Haiiala (sic- — Hariyana^ the Delhi region) 5 3 ,

Drada or Dradasya (sic — vi^qya 3^ 3 ,

Varnbhanavahaka (i.e. Brahmanavaha or
Bahmanabad in the Hyderabad region
of Sind) 33

Nilapura 2 1 thousands

Amala or Mala vi^aya (redundant; see No. 4) 1 lakh
Narerndu (sic — ^Varendra) deia (see No. 72

below )

Tilahga deia (Telengana)

Malava

Sayarhbhara (Sakambhara ) desa
Mevada (Medapata )

Vaguri

Guj aratra (sic — Gurj ar a tra, probably
modern Gujarat)

Paihdu (Pandya) vi^aya
Jahahuti (Jejabhukti, the Khajuraho re-
gion of Bundelkhand)

Kasmira

Kaumkana (Konkan — North ? )
Laghu-ELaurhkana (Smaller Konkan )
Sindhu

Kaccha mandala
Saurastra (Kathiawar )

Lada (Lata, the Nwf^ari-BIigtroch region
of Gujarat)

1 ^ lakhs

118,092
If lakhs

80 thousands

1422

20 thousands
1422

55 thousands

Caurasi

261

39 .

Atisindhu

thousands

40.

Asvamukha

41.

Ekapada

42.

Suryamukha or Surpanakha (sic — Surpa-

raka, the Sopara region in the Thana

District, Bombay)

3 3

43.

Ekabahu de^a

44.

Sariijayu de^a (Sanjan in the Thana

District ?)

45.

&va (Sibi) de^a

46.

Kalahayamjaya (Kalanjara ?)

47.

Lingodbhava de^a

48.

Bhadra

49.

Devabhadra

50.

Gata

51.

Virata (the Jaipur-Alwar-Bharatpur re-

gion of Rajasthan)

52.

Yamakoti (mythical city placed 90^ east

of the meridian of Lanka)

53.

Romaka deSa

crores

54.

Tomara

lakhs

55.

Karna^a

56.

Jahgala

57.

Stri-rajya^

58.

Pulastya or Mnlastya vi^aya

59.

Kamboja

10 lakhs

60.

Ko§ala (North or South Kosala, possibly

the latter in the Raipur-Bilaspur-Sam-
balpur region in Madhya Pradesh
and Orissa) 10

I. Strirajya seems to have been a woman-dominated Slate in the
Himalayan region. It may be noted that, in every Bihal {ithdraj of the
Newars of Nepal, a young girl (Kumdri) having no scar on her body is
worshipped as the living form of Kali or Durga. There is also a similar
Kumari for the whole kingdom, who is periodically elected from among
the girls of the Vanra (priest) community during the last night of the
navardtrt festival after a trying test. The Newars believe that the valley of
Nepal belongs to the Kumari and therefore every year the king h^^ to
receive from her a fresh mandate for ruling the country. The Kumari is
replaced by another before she is found to be approaching her first mens-
truation. See Gopal Singh Nepali, 'The JVewars^ Bombay, reviewed in
the Swarajya^ March 26, 1966, p- 27.

26S GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66 .

67.

68 .

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

Bahlika

Lanka de^a (see Simnala, No. 67)

K.uru de^a

K.ira.ta-vijayojaya (sic — Kirata deM )
Vidarbha (Vidarbha)

V ardhamana

Simhala dvtpa (Lanka, No. 62 )

Pamdu deia (probably in the Punjab;

see No. 30 above)

Bhayanaka

Magadha (Magadha) de£a
Parhgu or Parhdu deJa (redundant; see
Nos. 30 and 68)

Vareihdu (redundant; see No. 23 above)
Mulasthana (i.e. Multan)

Yavana

Paksabahu or Yaksabahu

4 lakhs

36 thousands
64 thousands
1^ lakhs

14 thousands
10

1 lakh

66 thousands

It may be pointed out that the text of the above Puranic
section is not free from errors.^ Some of the names show consi-
derable Prakrit influence^ while many of them are doubtful.
There is however epigraphic support in favour of some of the
traditional numbers of gramas quoted in the list. Thus the
Sakambhara or Sakambhari country (No. 26) is actually
known to have been otherwise called Sapadalak^a or ‘one and
a quarter lakhs’.^ But K.osala (No. 60) is stated to have con-
tained 6 lacs and 96 villages in a Kuruspal inscription* while
a well-known tradition gives the number of villages in Kashmir
(No. 32) as 66,063.®

1. Nos. 22, 71 and 72 are redundant. The list also omits many well-
known tracts.

2. E. g.. Nos- 20, 26, 27, 38.

3. Cf. No. 26 above and Bhandarkar’s List of Ins , Nos. 279, 356.
For another Sapadalaksa country in the Nizamabad-Kanmnagar region of
Andhra Pradesh, see Jour* Or* Res*, Vol. XVIII, Part i, p- 40. There was
similarly a Padonalaksa (i- e. 'one lakh minus one quarter*) country about
the Shivapuri District in the former Gwalior State (Ep, Ind*, Vol.
XXXIII, p. 68).

4. HiralaPs List of Inscriptions, No. 273 (p. iGi).

5. Stein, Kalhma's Rdjataumgim, Vol. II, pp. 438-39. The Muslim
writers give it as i lakh or 10,000.

CAURASl

263

The traditional numbers of villages in particular coun-
tries are also referred to in some other works* Vinayacandra^s
KdvjaHk^dy e. g,, mentions Surastra 9 thousands, Lata-desa
21 thousands, Guijara-desa 70 thousands, Parata 70 thousands,
Dahala 9 lakhs, Malava 9 lakhs and 92, Kanyakubja 46 lakhs,
etc.^ According to Rashiduddin and Wassaf, Gujarat com-
prised 80,000 or 70,000 villages and towns, Siwalik (c£ No* 26)
125,000 and Malwa (No. 25) 1,893,000. Hemacandra says
that there were 1800 villages in Arbuda (Abu) while Forbes
refers to a tradition that Caulukya Kumarapala’s kingdom as well
as Ajmer each contained 1 lakh villages. The Tabaqat-'i-JN'dsirt
gives 70,000 as the number of villages in Gondwana.*

It should be pointed out that sometimes numbers mentioned
with the name of a tract do not refer to villages, but groups of
them, although a distinction is made in such cases. The
Udaypur (former Gwalior State, now in Madhya Pradesh)
inscription of 1173 A.D. speaks of a village in Bhrhgarika-
catuhsasti-pathaka which formed a part of Bhailasvami-maha-
dvadasaka-mandala.® It appears that the pathaka or subdistrict
called ^Bhrhgarika 64^ consisted of sixty-four villages while the
mandala or district called ^Bhailasvamin great- 12’ consisted of
twelve subdistricts. The speciality of the second case has been
indicated in the record by the introduction of the word mahat
(great) prefixed to the number.

Geographical names of this kind were more popular in
the Kannada-speaking area than elsewhere in India. There is
evidence to show that, in the said region, the idea of coining
similar names was not unknown even in the fourth cen-
tury A.D.^

1. Rajasekhara’s Kdtyamimdmsd^ G._ 0 . S. cd., pp. 248-49. Cf. Nos,
6, 10, 25, 29, 37 and 38 of the Skanda Pur ana list quoted above.

2. See P. Niyogi, "The Economic History of J^orihern India, pp. sfT*

3. VoL XVIII, pp, 344 ff. ; see above, p. 257, note i.

4. Gf. The Successors of the Sdtaidhanas, p. 250 (Sahalatavi-gramahara,

probably consisting of twelve villages), and p. 305 (Tagarc-mahagrama
consisting of twenty-four paths) referring to certain inscriptions of the Early
Kadambas. On the whole question, see Fleet in JRAS, 1912, pp* 707 ff.,
and V- S. Agrawala in Jadunath Sarkar Com, II, pp. 14^ Our former

interpretation of grama as a unit of revenue assessment (elaborated by
Agrawala as "one plough measure of land assessed at one silver Karsapana’;
cannot be true in respect of many of the cases specified above. Of course
the number of such revenue units or income in coins may have been con-
fused with that of the villages of a territory in the cases quoting very big
numbers.

Gbtapter XIX

aONAROA^

Xhe Pdrdyana incorporated in the Pali Suttanipdta is one
of the most ancient Buddhist works. The parallel writings,
attested by frequent mention, have disappeared. But the Pali
text, guaranteed as it is by two commentaries, viz. the Mahdnid-
desa and the Cullaniddesa which too are very ancient, has an in-
contestable value. In the account which sets forth the
introduction to the collection, the Brahmana Bavari, emigrated
from the 'charming city of the Kosalas’ {i.e* iSravasti ), comes
to settle himself 4n the country of Assaka, in the vicinity of
Mulaka,2 on the banks of the Godhavari*. He sends his disciples
in a mission to the Buddha at his place of birth, i.e. Savatthi
of the K-osalas. The poet sums up in three verses (1011-1013)
the steps in their route : ^Tatitthana of Mulaka; then the city
of Mahissati ; also Ujjeni and Gonaddha; Vedisa; Vana-savha-
ya; K.osambi ; and also Saketa; and the big city of Savatthi,
Setavya, Kapilavatthu ; and the city of Kusinara ; and Pava;
Bhoga-nagara ; the Magadhan city of Vesali and the Pasanaka
Getiya.’’

The itinerary deserves the honour of a careful study. Here,
however, I shall only occupy myself with the intermediate step
between Ujjeni and Vedisa, two perfectly definite localities -
The one is still now Ujjain to the north of Indore, lat. 23*^ IT
10*" N., and long. 75^ 5T 45^^ E-; the other is Besnagar very
near Bhilsa, lat. 23<> 3T 35" N., and long. 77^ 55' 39" E. The
Pdrdyana places the city of Gonaddha between these two points-

The catalogue of the Yaksas in the Mahdmdyurl^ follows an
exactly identical order : ‘‘at Avanti the Yaksa is Priyadarsana;
at Gomardana Sikhandin; at Vaidisa Ahjalipriya.^^ Avanti
is another name of Ujjayini; Vaidiia is the Sanskrit form of

1. [This IS a translation of an article in French, entitled Gonarda, le
berceau du GonardiTii^ by Sylvain Levi, 'which was published in the Sir Asuio:>h
Afooketjee Silver Jubilee Volumes^ Vol. Ill (Orientalia j. Part ii, pp. 197-205.]

2. £The name may also be spelt as Niiilaka.'\

3. Journ. 1915? I? p- 43, verse 19.

OONARJbA

26 ^

I^ali Vedisa. The name of the intermediate locality is fluctuating
in the tradition of the manuscripts. I have reproduced the read-
ing of the Mss O and H in the text; but D reads Gonardane.
Of the three Chinese versions, S transcribes Kiu-kia-V o-na^
which supposes an original Gogardana ; Y translates Tou-hiy
''BulI-joy% which restores Gonandanai A translates Tou-ts^oei^
"Bull-compress % that is, Gomardana. The Tibetan translator
has followed the same text {Ba-^lan ^joms^ "Bull-compress’ ).
The evidence of the Suttanipdta comes to confirm the reading
Gonardana^ because it is evident that, in both cases , the question
is of the same locality. The Pali Gonaddka may be restored,
without difficulty, to Sanskrit Gonarda. The aspiration, intro-
duced subsidiarily in the Pali form, is a phenomenon which is
nothing exceptional. In that very introduction to the Pdrdya^j
we have already also met with the Sanskrit name of the Godavari,
modified by aspiration of the dental in the interior of the word
as Godhdvari, A list of analogous cases will be found, e.g,^ in the
Pali by Geiger, § 40 and § 62, and, for the Prakrits in general,
in the Grammatik der Prakrit Schprachen by Pischel, § 207-209. In
proper names, the phenomenon seems due generally to an erro-
neous interpretation; Khanda, "the god Skanda’, owes its

aspiration to a confusion with skandha^ "the shoulder’ ; Erdpatha =
Airdvata, "the divine elephant’, has suffered the contamination
o^ patha^ "way’ (as, in Sanskrit also, it has later suffered the con-
tamination of patra^ "leaf’, in becoming Eldpatra). One would
have believed to recognise the word godha, "big lizard’, in the
first syllables of the name of the Godavari. Sanskrit go--narda
(or go~nardana by developed suffixation) clearly signifies "the
lowing of the cow’. Passed to Prakrit under the form gonadda
(or go-naddana)^ the word becomes unintelligible. The root nard
seems to have submitted in Prakrit to the root nad from
which it hardly differentiates itself. Moreover, the word go
quite naturally suggested the word naddha^ "attached, bound’.

Whatever be the explanation, the equivalence Gonarda*«
Gonaddha is certain. The name of Gonarda is indissolubly
connected with the memory of Pataiijali, "the Gonardian’,
Gonardiya, A constant tradition attested by Kaiyata, by the
author of the TrikandaJe^a, and by Hemacandra, identifies
the personage designated by the name of Gonardpa in the Mahd*
bhd§ya with the author of the Mahdbhd§ya^ KLielhorn, it is true.

266

CEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

vigourously contested the value of that tradition^ and maintained
that the Gonardiya was the author of the Karika in verse^ utilised
and cited by Patahjali, The authority of Kielhorn in questions
concerning the Mahdbhdsya surely deserves the highest considera-
tion. But his interpretation is not in requisite contradiction of
the Indian tradition. Patahjali might refer in the Mahdbhdsya
to an anterior work which he had composed^ designating himself
with an appellation of impersonal character, derived from his
place of birth. The geographical situation of Gonarda always
agrees marvellously with the rare indications, which may be
deduced from the Mahdbhd^ia^ for fixing the date of Patahjali.
The two essential facts are ; (1 ) the mention of Pusyamitra,
of his court {sabhd)^ and of his sacrifice {iha Pusyamitrarh ^dja--
ydmah)i and (2) the mention of the Greek conquests in India
{arunad^Tavanah Sdketam^ arunad= Tavano Adadhyamikdm). Now,
Gonarda is the nearest step to Vidisa, which, according to the
evidence of the accounts followed by Kalidasa in the Mdlavi--
kdgnimitra:, was the capital where the son of Pusyamitra resided
in the capacity of a viceroy. And Vidisa was also in close con-
nections with Greek politics. The column of Besnagar, on the
site of the ancient Vidisa, preserves the memory of a Greek
ambassador {Tona-duta)^ Heliodorous, sent by the Greek king
Antialkidas, to the Indian king Kasiputra Bhagabhadra. More-
over, the geographical horizon of the Mahdbhdsya sets itself
harmoniously around the Gonarda- Vidisa region as the centre.
Excepting some general designations of territories, Vidarbha,
Videha, Cola, Kerala, etc., which do not implicate any direct
and personal knowledge, the names of localities, cities or towns
form themselves in a sort of triangle, of which the base goes from
Pataliputra to the Punjab, and of which the apex reaches the
lower Narmada about Mahismati, a place figuring in the
itinerary of the Pdrdyana as an intermediate step which the dis-
ciples of Bavari, who started from Pratisthana, reached on
their way to Ujjayini. Likewise the Mahdbhdsya has :

^ C\ 'O *V

A difficulty seems to oppose directly the location of Go-
narda that I propose. The name of Gonarda is cited as that of

1. Ind. Ant.^ Vol. XV, pp. 81-83.

2. On Panini, III. 1. 26.

GONARDA

26 f

a place ‘in the land of the Orientals’ in the CandravrttP- and in
the Kdiikavrtti on Panini, I. 1.75. just for explaining the forma-
tion of the derivative Gonardiya without vrddhu Panini says that,
by exception, the dipthongs e and o should be considered as
in the degree of vrddhi (which is normally at and au ) in the names
of places of the land of the Orientals {en prdcam de^e). Gandra-
gomin reproduces this siitra adapting it in his system (III. 2* 25:
en-ddy-acah prag-deMt), We are evidently surprised, and even
shocked, to see Gonarda, which is in the heart of Malwa, here
placed in Hhe East’ of India. We have not, however, the right
to call the assertion of Candragomin and the Kdiikd in question.
It is not the question of following a blind confidence in the
geographical knowledge of these commentaries; but the reasoning,
from the grammatical order, is unquestionable, Gonardiya is
a derivative formed by means of the suffix cha ( = The

suffix cha joins a stem having vrddhi^ Gonardiya is treated as a
stem of vrddhi^ though it has and not in the first syllable.
The thing then is that it enters into the exception anticipated
by Panini.^ So Gonarda, from’ which it derived, is the name of
a locality of the Orientals.

But what should we mean by ^the Orientals’, prdncah ? The
grammar, since Panini, knows only two groupings as regards the
cardinal points, the Northerners {udancah) and the

Easterners {prdncah^. A traditional verse quoted by thG Kdiikd^
and Ksirasvamin^ establishes that division :

?rr jt: qrg ii

^^She separates the East and the North, as the swan separates
the milk and the water, for fixing well the usage of the classical
language. May the iSaravati protect us !”

And the Dictionary of Amara, in describing the earth,
stands also on that double division which it completes by the
secondary association of the two other directions :

1. On Candragomin, III. 2, 25, etc,

2 . Vrddhdc^chah (Panini, IV. 2 . 114)-

3. I. I. 75.

4. On Panini, I. i. 75.

5. On Amara, II, i. 6-7.

268

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

siT^^W. S(T^ q'tw^ftcTT: IJi

^In starting from the ^Saravati, the country, which is to the south*
east, is the East; that, which is to the north-west, is the North/
Thus, to Amara, the South is expressly connected with the
East, and the North with the West. The glossologist Vandya-
ghatiya [Sarvananda] writes on the passage that ^the Saravati
is a river of India that runs from the north-east towards the
Western Ocean^* ^

. The indication seems plain and

clear. Unfortunately real geography does not confirm it.
Vandyaghatiya, a veritable glossologist, has deduced from
the text itself the indication which he appears to have added
here. He has borrowed it neither from the modern geography,
nor from the ancient, nor from the consecrated nomenclatures
of the rivers in the epics and the Puranas. The pretended
Saravati of Vandyaghatiya will be searched in vain. In
fact, the tradition has perpetuated, this time also, an ap-
pellation that had no more any relation, for a long time,
with reality.

There had been a time, when the name Saravati,

^[the river] with reeds,’ was applied to a course of water,

which separated the whole of Aryan India into two parts.

Pamni expressly teaches the formation of the name.^ The me-
mory of a frontier indicated by the river Saravati is curiously
preserved in a celebrated episode of the Buddhist tradition.’^ When
Kotikarna goes to consult the Buddha on the limits of the country
of strict observance, the Lord fixes the southern limit at Sara-
vati : ‘Tn the South there is a city named iSaravati, and beyond
that is a river named Saravati. There is the boundary

Such

is at least the tradition of the Mulasarvastivadin school in the
original text gathered by the compilers of the DivyavaddnaJ^ The
editors of the text, Cowell and Neil, cite two variants of the name,
furnished by some manuscripts of inferior value : Sarvdvatl
(Ms. A) and Savdrdvatl (Ms. B). It is this last reading which
has been followed by Yi-tsing, the author (responsible, if not

I. II. I. 6-7.

sj. Sar-ddzndm ca (VI. 3- 120).

3, Ed. Cowell and Neil, p 2x.

gonarda

269

actual) of the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaja, He has rendered the
name of the city and the river as Che-pa (or fo )4o-Ja-ti which
supposes an original Savaravatl,^ Yi-tsing reproduces the same
form of the name in another treatise of the same Vinaya^ viz. the
Mulasarvastivdda Ekasatakarma^ wherein the same episode is
repeated in an abridged from. The reading Savaravait is un-
doubtedly due to an attempt at correction to substitute for the
unknown J^aravati a name which evoked the idea of the savage
tribe of the !§avaras who inhabited the central plateau on the
southern border of the basin of the Ganges. The corresponding
passage of the Vinaya of the Sarvastivadins is known to us only
from the Chinese version due to Punyatara, which appears,
owing to the fault of the translator or of the original, in a state
of inextricable confusion. After having given Mount Usira
(Yeou-chi-lo) as the northern limit, it adds : ‘beyond that
mountain, and not far off, there is the tree So-Io by the source
with rushes.’^ The ‘source with rushes’ seems to be the equiva-
lent of Saravati, ‘[the water] which has some reeds,’ and the
tree So-lo^Sara or Sala seems to go back to the same original.
Through and through, this Vinaya gives ‘the river of the Bam-
boos’, as the limit in the North-East which too evokes the
iSaravati- Such as it is, the passage is not then utilisable. The
Pali Vinaya of the Sthavira school substitutes Salalamti (with the
variants Sallavati and Salilavati, though the evidence of Jdtukay
I, 49, and the Sumangalavildsinty I, 173, confirms the reading
Salala^) for Sardvati. It makes that river the boundary in the
south-east : puratthima-dakkhindya disdya Salalavati ndma nadiA
The direction of the south-east in the Pali work partly agrees
with the direction of the south in the Vinaya of the Mulasarv^as-
tivadins. It is in absolute contradiction of the Brahmanical
conception of the Saravati which, separating the North and the
East, must flow to the north-west of the country of the Middle,
Le. Madhya-desa, which is the land of strict observance.®

I. Tok., XVII, 4, luB-a, 9.

i?. Tok., XVII, 5, 57-b, 2.

3. Tok, XVI, 4, 59-a, 17.

4. Vinayapitaka, Mahdvagga^ V, 13, 12.

5. [According to the Brahmanical conception^ the Saravati seems
to have crossed the land called Madhyadesa {i. e. the Central region of
Northern India) from the north-east to the scuth-'v^ est. This Iprd was
originally called Aryavarta and was later regaided as the heart oi it.
See Sircar, Cosm. Geog, Anc. Jnd. Ltt,^ pp. xy-iB-]

270 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

The city of iSaravad (iSaravati-nagari ), which the Vinaya
of the Mulasarva^tivadins place just on this side of the river
Saravatij is no better known than the river itself. A city of the
same name, it is true, appears in the Raghuvartda, XV. 97, as the
capital of Lava, son of Rama, while the latter’s other son reigned
at Kusavati :

^rcT^r^sTcTf ii

This is at least the text adopted by Mallinatha and generally
accepted on the authority of that commentator. But the com-
mentators Vallabha, Vijayananda-suri and Caritravardhana
read : Sravastjdrh ca^ and Hemadri and Summativijaya have :
Srdvatydm ca. And in fact^ the Uttarakanda of the Rdmdyana^
which Kalidasa follows, calls the capital of Lava Srdvasti in the
text of Bombay, GVIII. 5, as also in the text of Calcutta,
GXXI. 4 jfr ^ Actually, ac-

cording to all the texts of the Rdmdyana^ Lava reigned
over Uttara-Kosala while Kusa ruled over Kosala proper

Sravasti was the capital
of Uttara-Kosala.^ The city and the river of Varava tl on the
confines of the North and the East have nothing to do here.

A precise location of the site of Gonarda with reference to
Saravati, which is not to be found, must then be given up. But

1. Gorresio’s edition, CXIII. 24 has Sidvaii :

2. [The Raghuvamsa (XVT. 31 ff.) suggests that Kusavati lay in a
territory to the south of the Vindhyas, apparently in the present Raipur-
Biiaspur-Sambalpur region v/hich was called Kosala at least from before the
middle of the fourth century when the Allahabad pillar inscription of
Samudragupta was composed. This country was regarded as Kosala proper
while the Ayodhya region was known as Uttara-Kosala* See also Raghuvamsa^
VI. 71, and Vdyu Purdna^ 89. 199-200 —

** *• -*N . - <*

TJTWTWr ^ II

-o <0

CR Dey, Geog, Dict,^ s. v. See above, p. 106.

GONARDA

271

one fact subsists. In the traditional division of Aryavarta into
two regions, viz. North and East, Gonarda, treated grammati-
cally as a locality of the ‘Orientals’, is not in the North, however
may have come its secondary orientation. It is then not
to be surprised if Varahamihira, the only known author who
mentions Gonarda after the texts already cited,^ places Gonarda
among the countries of the south in his astrological chart of
India {Brhatsamhitd, XIV. 12 : ....

. . . . . . "Kfi+rui r^ftrr: I ( sic —

. . . JTrf^tr . . . . The name of

Gonarda appears twice more in the Brhatsarhhita, in the texts
of two purely astrological groupings: IX. 13 ;

cs ^ ^ e

and XXXII. 22 : II

In his geographical nomenclature^ Varahamihira seems to
throw the names at the hazard of the metre, so that nothing
about their relative position can be inferred from a stand on the
order of classification. Among these names of the southern
regions, there is one, however, which deserves detaining atten-
tion. This is the name of Tumbavana.. But the locality is, as
far as I know, completely unknown in literature. Neverthe-
less, in the Paramatthajotikdy his commentary on the Suttanipdta^
Buddhaghosa remarks on some verses of the Pdrdyana^ wherein
Gonarda is mentioned : Ujjenin — c^dpi Gonaddham Vedisarh
Vana-savhayam^ that *Vana-savhaya (literally, ‘^which bears the
name of a forest^) designates Tumbavana-nagara, others
maintaining that this is Vanasavatthi’ {Vana-savhayan^ti
Tumbavana- {na"^) gararfi vuccati^ Vanasdvatthin^ti pi eke). The

I- [The Aldrkandejfi Purdrta mentions Gonarda along with the
countries of the southern and western parts of India. See Chapter LVIII,
verses 20-29, though the stanzas appear to be an adaptation from those of
the Brhafsamhifd. But the Puranas generally mention Gonarda along wnth the
eastern countries (cf. above, p. 38, note i\ The Gaunardas are mentioned
in a list of ancient ruling clans in one of the manuscripts of the Vdyu Pur ana
(Pargiter, Phe Parana etc., p. 3). Besides the Bf. and Mark lists,

Gonarda is found in Parasara’s list Cosm. Geog.y p. 94n'u]

2. [For Avadaka. the intended leading seems to be Axantaka and
not Anartaka. because Anarta is already mentioned in verse 17 of the same
Chapter. The Bangahagi ed- of the work reads Aianiaka.l

272

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL IITOIA

gloss is quoted in ^Andersen-Smith’s edition of the SuUanipdtaJ^
Thus, according to the statement of Buddhaghosa, Tumbavana
would be the step between Vidisa and KausambI, on the
route from Gonaddha-Gonarda towards the Yamuna.^ In fact
in the Stupa of Sanchi near the site of Vidisa (lat. 23^ 28'
N- ; long, 77^ 48' E. ), five inscriptions* commemorate the
donations made by some inhabitants of Tumbavana- Among
the benefactors of the Stupay are also represented the inhabitants
of Mahismati, Ujjayini and Vidisa. It is astonishing not to
meet some people of Gonarda.

The authenticity of the geographical nomenclature in the
introduction of the Par ay ana is confirmed by a decisive trait,
Bavari is here represented as settled on the bank of the Godavari,
in the region of Alaka :

So Assakassa visaye Alakassa samdsane I

vast Godhdvarl'-kule unchena ca phalena ca 1 1 (verse 2 )

When his disciples leave him, their first step towards the
north is the city of Tatittana of Alaka’ {Alakassa Patitthdnarhy
V. 36). Such is at least the text adopted by the editors, Fausboell
and Andersen-Smith. But the material furnished by the latter
shows that, in the two passages, the Burmese manuscripts have
Mulaka instead of Alaka. The inscription of l§ri-Pulumayi at
Nasik, enumerating the provinces annexed by Gautamiputra
to his empire, names the country of Mulaka which it puts to-
gether with the country of Asaka (Assaka ) exactly as the Pdrd-
yana does : Asika-Asaka-Mulaka-‘Suratha--Kukur-Apararhta-Anupa^
Vidabha- Akar~ Avail . The latest editor of the inscription, M.
Senart, wrote about the name Mulaka : ^^The Mulakas remain
shrouded in obscurity. Bhagwanlal adduced the dynasty of
the Mundakas, known from the VUnu Purdna ; and the way in
which they are here mentioned together with the Sakas and
Tukharas is such as to commend the hint. But I am doubtful
about the change of / into Thanks to the text of the

Pdrdyana the mystery is solved. The site of Mulaka may also

1. Op. cit, p. 194-

2. [Tumbavana is modern Tumain in the Guna District of the former

Gwalior State. See the Tumain inscription of the Gupta year 116, which
mentions Tumbavana, in jF/». , Vol. XXVI, pp. iiffT, ]

3. Luedcrs’ List of Ins., Nos. 20T, 202, 449, 450, 320.

A. Ind.. Vol. Vm. n. 62-

OONARDA

273

be determined with enough precision, since it is between Asaka
(Assaka, Asmaka) where exists the city of Pratisthana (Patif-
■fhana), now-a-days Paithan on the upper Godavari, near its
source, and Sura tha (Surastra) which is the modern peninsula
of Kathiawar . Mulaka should then indicate the portion of the
coast with the rear-country lying to the north of Bombay, i.e*
Gujarat.^

I shall perhaps be accused of attaching an excessive im-
portance to the order of succession in which the names of pro-
vinces arc enumerated in the inscription of Pulumayi. But the
inscription of Rudradaman at Girnar, which goes up to the
same epoch, also contains a list of provinces subdued by Rudra-
daman, the adversary of the iSatakarni dynasty, to which
Gautamiputra and Pulumayi belonged. His domain is partly
formed of the territories conquered from the Satakarnis. The
following are foimd in this list : Akar-Avanti, Anupa, Surastra,
Kukur- Aparan ta, etc .

ql <^5 ^ Id M T <rii ^ . But here the order of succes-

sion is the reverse, since Rudradaman extended his conquests
from the north to the south, starting from the region of Ujjayani,
his capital, whereas Gautamiputra, starting from the banks of
the Godavari, marched conquering from the south to the north.

The memory of the country of Mulaka is perhaps not
entirely effaced from the Puranic tradition. In the genealogy
of the race of Iksvaku, the Vi^u Purdna (IV. 4) assigns a son
named A€maka to Kalmasapada. Asmaka’s son and successor
was Mulaka, surnamed Narikavaca, because some women hid
and saved him at the time of the general massacre of the Ksa-
triyas. Asmaka is clearly an eponymous hero, the eponym of
the country of Asmaka, the ^Stony’ territory (a/m< 2 n-=^stone’ ),
situated to the south of Avanti and closely connected with it.
Gf. Avanty-A§mdkdh in the Ganapdtha under thi^ Kdrta-'Kaujap-
ddayah Gana and Asmak-Avanti in the Sarvastivadin Vinaya
episode of Kotikarna. The Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya has Aim’-

ll [Mulaka was situated close to Asmaka and the Godavari and the
city of Pratisthana lay in it. Paithan lies in the Aurangabad District of
the former Hyderabad State. Mulaka was therefore the area around that
District which was sometimes included in Asmaka. See above, pp- 189-90,
225fF.; below, p. 274, note i-]

2- [The expression purv-dpma seems to mean ‘counted from east to
west.*]

274 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Apardntaka which Cowell and Neil wrongly read; asmdt pardn-^
The relation between Asmaka and Mulaka so clearly
expressed in the Pdrdyana {so Assakassa visaye Mulakassa samd-
sam^ V. 2) suggests that the filiation indicated in the Parana
between king Asmaka and king Mulaka interprets a geographi-
cal relation by the genealogy.

It will be less astonishing to meet in a section of the Sutta-
nipdia with some details^ so precise, of the geography of the re-
gions that encircle the Gulf of Cambay, if it is remembered that
one of the pearls of the Collection, viz. the admirable Dhani-
yasutta^^ has the bank of the Mah! for its scene. The shepherd
Dhaniya is settled here {anutire Mahiyd samdna-vdso). The
Buddha passes a night on the bank of the river {anutire Mahiy =
eka-^ratti-vdso^. The audacity of a poet and a local inspiration
must have been necessary for bringing the Buddha in these
exotic quarters so far from his real activity, in close contact of
the sea frequented by the barbarians.*

1. Ditydvaddna^ i, [Aparanta was the Thana region (Northern
Konkan) between the Bombay area and Gujarat and had its capital at
Surparaka (modern Sopara) . For this country and Lafa in the Nausari —
Broach region of Southern Gujarat, see above, pp. 225ff ]

2. Uragavdgga, 2.

3. [See above , p. 273, note i. For the situation of the Asmaka
country which lay far away from the M.ahi valley, see above, pp. 189-90.]

Chapter XX

KOKAMUKHA^

Some years ago, no less than five copper-plate charters of
the time of three emperors of the Gupta dynasty were discovered
at a place called Damodarpur near the Phulbari Police Station
in the Balurghat Sub-Division of the old Dinajpur District,
North Bengal. One of these records refers to the Gupta cm|>eror
Budhagupta (477-94 A.D. ), the uparika Maharaja Jayadatta,
viceroy of the Pundravardhana bhuktz^ and the dyuktaka Gan-
daka (or jSandaka) who was in charge of the Kotivarsa m^qya,
Gandaka is said to have been helped in the administration of the
Klotivarsa district by the nagar air thin Rbhupala, sdrthavdha
Vasumitra, prathama-^kulika Varadatta, prathama'-kdyastha
Viprapala, etc. The sresthin Rbhupala one day approached the
adhisthdn-ddhikarana^ i. e. the office of administration at the
headquarters of the district, with the following petition :

^^rrx: f F h ^ftsFr

After having examined Rbhupala’s application,
Visnudatta, Vijayanandin and Sthanunandin

I
I

the pmstapdlas
reported that

some Kulyavapas of land at the rate of three Dinaras per Kulyavapa

might be sold to the iresthin^ because :

* It should be pointed out that we have quoted
above the epigraphic texts with the elimination of minor
grammatical errors.^

1. For the god Kokamukhasvamin, see H. G. Raychaudhuri, Siud.
Ind, Ant,, 1958, pp. 205 fF.

2. For the actual text of the passages and their interpretation, see

Select Inscrtptiofi^, pp. 328-30; for ^<7, ste Ind. JEp,. pp. 4iifr. For the

other Damodarpur inscriptions cited below, see Stl, pp. fl. . 2^4 f^-*

337 AT. The board of administrators headed by the J\^agarahe§iji2n, referred

276

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

The expression Himavac-chikhara in the passages quoted
above literally means ‘a. peak of the Himalayas’. But the village
called Donga-grama, where the donated lands were situated and
where further lands were applied for, does not appear to have
been far from Damodarpur, the findspot of the charter in ques-
tion. The village is also mentioned in another Damodarpur
record that was issued in the Gupta year 124 during the reign
of K-umaragupta I. A second Damodarpur grant of the time of
Budhagupta, dated in the year 163, mentions Vayi-gramaka
which is no other than the modern Baigram in the Bogra District,
not far away from the finsdpot of the record. The Damodarpur
inscription of the Gupta year 224 refers to the purchase of five
Kvlyavdpas of land by the Kulaputra Amrtadeva hailing from
Ayodhya for the following purpose ;

\ In connection with the grant of land to the
god Svetavarahasvamin in this case, mention has been made of
Svacchanda-pataka, Lavahgasika, Satuvan-a^ramaka, Paras-
patika, the Jambu-nadi and Puranavrndikahari. Of these,
Puranavrndikahari has been identified by some scholars with
modern Brindakoori, 14 miles to the north of Damodarpur. It
is therefore almost certain that the lands granted by Rbhupala
to the gods K-okamukhasvamin and Svetavarahasvamin lay in the
Damodarpur region in the southern part of the old Dinajpur
District. But the temples of the two gods in question were
situated in the Himalayan region far away from Damodarapur.
It has therefore been suggested by some scholars that the mourn
tainous region about the northern fringe of the modern territory
of Bengal formed parts of the Kotivarsa vi§aya (Dinajpur area )
or the Pundravardhana bhukti (North Bengal).^ This hypo-
thesis is apparently due to the fact that nobody has so far been
able to determine the exact location of the temples of Klokamukha
and Svetavaraha in the Himalayas*

to in these records was similar to the Pahcayat board of the Cauthias headed
by the Jfagar-setk as prevalent in Rajasthan. See Tod, An. Ant, ed.

Grookc, VoL I, pp, 171, 231; VoL II, p. 682. Gf. Journ, Un, Gauhati^
Vol. VI, pp. 81 ff.

I. History of Bengal y Dacca ypivfrsity:, VoL I, p. 24, p. 400 and note 3.

KOKAMUKHA

277

A tlrtha called K-okamtikha or Varaha-ksetra is known from
the Mahabhdratd?- and the Puranas. Chapters 219 and 229 of the
Brahma Purana locate the holy place of pilgrimage in the Hima-
layas. The Brahma Purana not only refers to the Klokamukha
tirtha in the Himalayas, but also to the Varaha form of Visnu
installed there and to the river called Koka which runs through
the place. Cf.

^ ? ? ^ ) ,etc*

But the Brahma Purana does not help us at all in determining the
exact location of the temple of Varaha at Kokamukha in the
Himalayas. For this, we have to examine other Puranic texts.
In this connection, attention of scholars may be drawn to the
Varaha Purana,

Chapter 140 of the Varaha Purana is styled Kokamukha^*
mdhatnyya-varnana. Here Varaha (Visnu in the Boar form)
declares to the goddess Earth :

>0 Cv -v

?r»r^=^rTft' ^ Tr^xcifir n (?voiv-\)

According to this pajssage, only three places on the earth are the
abodes of Varaha, and they are: (1) Kokamukha, (2) Badari
or Badarik-asrama, and (3 ) Lohargala, all in the Himalayas.
Chapter 141 of the Purana, styled Badarikdirama-mahdtnyfa-
varnana^ refers to a number of holy spots in the region of the tirtha
now known as Badarinaxayana. They are Brahma-kunda,
Agnisatya-pada, Indraloka, Pancasikha, Catuh-srotah, Veda-
dhara, Hvadasaditya-kunda, Lokapala, Sthala-kunda amongst
hills, Meruvara, Manasodbheda, Panca-sarah, Somabhiseka,

I. See III. 48. 158; XIII. 25. 52.

f^78

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEMEVAE INGIA

Soma-giri, Urvasi-kunda;, etc. Chapter 151 of the Vardha Purdna^
styled the Lohdrgala’-mdhdtmya-varnana^ refers to the holy spots
belonging to the Lohargala tirtha in the land of the Mlecchas
in the Himalayas.^

The holy spots in Lohargala are Pahca-sarah^ Narada-
kunda, Vasistha-kunda (where five streams are falling from the
Himakuta), Saptarsi-kunda (where seven streams fall from the
Himavat-parvata ), Sarabhanga-kunda (cf^ ^TTT

?T^), Agnisarah-kunda^ Brhaspati-kunda (where
falls a stream which is Himakuta-samdiritd^, Vaisvanara-kunda
(^TTO Karttikeya-kunda (where

fifteen streams fall from the Hima-parvata )3 Uma-kunda,
Mahesvara-kunda (where three streams fall from the Himavat-
parvata), Brahma-kunda (where four streams fall from the
Himalaya), etc.

The holy spots belonging to the Kokamukha iirtha men-
tioned in the Vardha Purdna^ Chapter 140, are the following :
1. Jalabindu; 2. Visnu-dhara; 3. Visnu-pada which is
Kokdmukh-diritai 4. Visnu-sarah; 5. Soma-tirtha —

6. Tungakuta ; 7. Agni-sarah —
mij: Pi f< ^4i ][ ffera'T: ; g. Brahma-sarah; 9.

Dhenuvata; 10. Dharmodbhava-f^fr^^rqr

ll. Kotivata; 12. Papapramocana ; 13. Yamavyasanaka;
14. Matanga-~^>^ ; 15. Vajrabhava

; 16. Sakrarudra which is

Kakd-^ildtala-sthita; 17. Damstrankura — f^TpT.^^;

18. Visnu-tirtha — q^Tq^RT q^^ 19. Sarva-

kamika— sifer ^ WK qqq q^f%(qfV*)qfiqrqr: I

fqWTcTr ftr^ 11 20. Matsya-sila — Sifef qp?

Gf.

qqTf^Rrq 11
^ fqqiqt fq%r: 1

q^qi^qq ii
qt f^^rqTf^ra-: i

I^Wsrfbq't q ii (

Lohargala is generally identified with Lohaghat in Kumaon
(Kurmacala). Gf. Dcy, Geog, DicU^ s. v.

kokamxjkha

279

^ wm I 4 ^%#Tnf«r^ ^i^tr i

Besides the above particulars, we have some general observations
on the Kokamukha tirtha, such as — ■(

?riT,

^rraRT 5^cnw%:, ^TJT>!TcnT^ fpcSTT

etc. It is quite clear from the description of the Kokamukha
tirtha in the Vardha Purdim that two rivers named Koka and
KausikI as well as their confluence were intimately associated
with the holy region.

There are several rivers of the name Kausiki in different

parts of India. But the only Kausiki that can be associated with
a kfetra of Varaha as well as with a river called Koka is the
Kausiki, modern Kosi, running from Nepal by the western
borders of the Purnea District of Bihar. The river is known in
Nepal as the Sun^Kosi ( 2 . Svarna-Kausiki ) and some
of its tributaries have names like Arun-Kosi, Dudh-Kosi, etc.
The ancient Kokamukha tirtha or Varaha-ksetra is situated on

the bank of the Sun-Kosi in Nepal and is now popularly known
as Barah-chatra, chatra being the common corrupt form derived
from Sanskrit k^etra*

It is unfortunate that in most maps of Nepal no locality
called Varaha-ksetra or Barah-chatra is indicated. Of course

Dhankuta a little to the north and Bijapur to the east of the
holy region are found even in ordinary maps* E. Thornton’s
Gazetteer of India (London, 1886, s. v. ) spells the name wrongly
as Vardhachatra instead of Varahachatra (with d wrongly printed
for a) and says, ^^Town in Nepal State; situated on the left
bank of the San-Kusi river, 124 miles east-south-east of Khat-
mandu. Lat. 26® 57', long. 87® 4'.” The Gupta Press Direc-
tory Panjikd (in Bengali) observes, Varahachatra. — The
image of Varahadeva, the third incarnation of Lord Visnu, is
installed on the Dhavalagiri near the kingdom of Bhutan forming
part of the kingdom of Nepal. A fair is held at the place every
year during the full-moon day of the month of Karttika. From
Calcutta to Jogbani (Katihar-Jogbani branch, B. & A. Ry. ),
the distance is 331 miles {pia Ranaghat and Lalgolaghat). The
foot of the Dhavalagiri peak is 20 miles from that place by a
road along the Kusi river; the temple of Varahadeva lies 20
miles above.” Although Bhutan and the celebrated Dhavalagiri

280 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

in Nepal are far away from the Varaha-ksetra or Barah-chatra,
the location of the holy place indicated above is fairly correct.
The Barah-chatra and the Koka river have been placed in the
same region in an old book entitled An Account of the Kingdom
of Nepal (being the substance of observations made during a
Mission to that country in the year 1793) by Colonel ELirk-
Patrick, London, 1811- They are also indicated in the map
inserted in the book. While describing the route from Elhat-
mandu to Bijapur, the author says (pp. 324-25); From Oh-
dhang ghaut "To the conflux of the Arun and Soan-Kousi —
7 [ghurries]; To Ukhurria ghaut (the 2nd) — 5 [ghurries] ;
To the Thumboor, £. e. the confluence of the Tumboor and
Soan-Kousi at Tambraphede — 26 [ghurries]; To Koka-Kola
(which falls into the Soan-Kousi according to the map) — 28
[ghurries] ; To Barah-chatra — 28 [ghurries] ; To Chattra-
ghaut (on the Kousi) — 5 [ghurries]; To Bejapour — 16 [ghur-
ries] The distance between the localities has been indicated
by time, a ghurry being equal to 22^ minutes. But the
estimates are only approximate as the time required in
travelling in a hilly region can hardly be uniform. The word
kola (probably from Sanskrit kulyd) means a stream and Koka-
kola means the small river called Koka. Thus we have here
not only a Varaha-ksetra, but also the junction of the rivers
Kausiki (Sun-Kusi) and Koka (Koka-kola). There is
therefore no doubt that the Barah-chatra in Nepal has to be
identified with the Kokamukha tirtha mentioned in the Mahd^
bkdrata and the Puranas and that the temples of the gods Koka-
mukha and !§vetavaraha, associated in the Damodarpur ins-
cription with Himavac-chikhara^ were situated at this place.

The distance of the ancient Kokamukha tirtha or Barah-
chatra in Nepal from the Damodarpur region in the southern
part of the oldDinajpur District is about 150 miles by air. The
inclusion of the above part of Nepal within the Kotivarsa
m^qya or the Pundravardhana bhukti in the Gupta period seems
to be quite out of question at the present state of our knowledge.

People of North Bihar have great regard for the Varaha-
ksetra even to-day* There is again no doubt that the culture
of North Bengal was intimately associated with that of
North Bihar before the former territory was flooded by Mongo-
lian migrations. It was therefore quite natural for the people

kokSmukha

28 i

of the Dinajpur region to visit the Klokamukha tlrtha even in
the Gupta age. The iresthin Rbhupala apparently went to
Varahaksetra-KLokamukha on pilgrimage and after having
returned home, dedicated a large area of land in his native dis-
trict in honour of the two gods enshrined at the holy place. But
it was not quite easy for him to send the income from it re-
gularly to distant Nepal. The pious Rbhupala therefore made
two temples of the same gods near the land originally granted,
together with two store-houses.^ He appears to have installed
in these temples two imitation-gods of the same names. That
is why the gods in the Himavac-chikhara have been styled adya^
z. e. ^originar. This is further suggested by the distinction of
the places indicated by the two expressions Himavac-chikhars
and iha occurring in the second passage quoted above from
Rbhupala’s record. About half a century after Rbhupala,
Amrtadeva granted lands in favour of the temple of Svetavaraha.
This is no doubt one of the temples founded by Rbhupala
in the Damodarpur region and not that of the original god in
the Himalayas. We have to take note of the fact that the ex-
pression Himavac^chikhara is conspicuous by its absence in the
record of Amrtadeva. Instead of any reference to the Hima-
layas, we find here the temple located in atr^dranye^

‘here in this forest% which no doubt formed a part of the
Kotivarsa-visaya.

‘these two temples marked by
the names of the said original gods, Kokamukhasvamin and Svetavaraha-
svamin, as well as these two store-houses in the vicinity of that [l^nd
granted originally at Ponga-grama in the Kotivarsa-visaya 3 .

Chapter XXI

GAYa

Xhe antiquity of the Gaya-tirtha has been the subject of a
controversy for a long^ time.^ Recently a paper entitled ^Bihar
in the Agni-Purana’ has been published in the Journal oj the Bihar
Research Society Vol. XL, Part i, 1954, pp. 1-7, where the problem
has been discussed without reference to the views of earlier
writers. In the concluding part of the said paper, the author
draws our attention to the well-known stanza :

sTEftsJTT i

and observes, '^‘^Xhis couplet was composed probably in the eighth
century A.D., and, from the absence of any mention of Gaya,
it appears that any importance it may have had then was only
local and that it did not acquire a pan-Indian celebrity before
this time. This is strengthened by the fact that while in (of? )
the Gupta period there is only one inscription found at Gaya,
in (of? ) the Pala period (c. 750-c. 1200) no less than six inscrip-
tions are found here. These things evidently point to the
growing importance of Gaya in the period subsequent to 750
A-D., i.e.^ in the period of the Agni-Purana.’^ We are sorry that
we cannot agree with the author’s contentions.

In the first place, it is not possible to assign the text of a
Purana as a whole, in all cases, to a definite date because it
usually contains matter interpolated by various redactors in
different ages. Moreover, the incorporation of a tradition in a
work at a particular date does not prove that it was non-existent
in an earlier age. It is therefore impossible to determine the
antiquity of Gaya from its mention in the Agni Furana alone.

I. Gf- R. L. Mlitra’s Buddha-Gay 1878; Cunningham’s Adahabodhi}.

O’Malley’s Gazetteer of the Gaya JDistjict (also his article in JASB^ Vol.
LXXII, 1903, No. 3, pp. i-ii); B. M. Barua’s Gqyd arid Buddha-Gaya.^ Vols.
I-II, 1934; J. G. Ghosh’s article m JBORS, Vol. XXIV, 1938, pp. 89-111;
F. V. Kane’s History of Dharmaidstra, Vol. IV, 1953, pp. 642-79.

GAYA

283

Secondly, the date of the composition of the stanza, Ayodhya^
etc., quoted above, is uncertain. Moreover a theory based on the
absence of Gaya in it seems to be merely a case of argumenium ex
silentio. It is certainly impossible to believe that Prabhasa,
Puskara and Prayaga, which are not mentioned in the verse,
attained all-India importance after the seventh century. The
pilgrimage of a ruler of the North Maratha country to Prabhasa
and Puskara is mentioned in an inscription of the second century
while Prayaga is not only referred to in a Khila verse
placed in the J^gveda^ X. 75, but is also mentioned in an inscrip-
tion^ as a holy place where a sixth century king of East Malwa
committed religious suicide according to the injunction of the
Dharmasastra writers. There is absolutely no doubt that these
three tirthas^ not represented in the stanza relied on by our
author, became widely known many hundred years before the
eighth century when the said verse is supposed to have been com-
posed. The verse is found with some modifications once in the
Brahmdnda (IV. 40. 91) and Garuda (Preta-khanda, 38. 5-6)
Purdnas and twice in the Kasi-khanda (6. 68 and 23. 7) section
of the Skanda Pur ana. ^ There is hardly any doubt that the date
of its composition is later than that of a traditional stanza regard-
ing the sanctity of Gaya, which is found in the epics as well as
in most of the Puranas and Dharmasastra works. But this
is not the only evidence to show that Gaya was already one of the
most famous Indian tlrthas long before the rise of the Palas about
the middle of the eighth century.

The JSdahdbhdrata is believed to have assumed its present
form between the fourth century B.C. and the fourth century
A.D.,* while the Rdmdyana is supposed to have had its present
extent and contents as early as the second century A.D.^ The
Tirtha-yatra section of the Vana-parvan of the Mahdbhdrata
contains two subsections on Gaya,® which point to the place as a
great tirtha. But what is more important is that both these sub-

1. Select Inscriptions, pp. i6o il.

2. Corp, Ins. Jnd., Vol. p. 2co,

3. Sec N. Li. Dey. Geographical Dictionary, p. 179; KLane, op, tit., p. 678,
note 1935.

4. Gf. Cambridge History of India, V"ol. I, p. 258; Wiuternitz, History oj
Indian Literature, Voi. I, p. 485.

5. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 316.

6. Calcutta ed., 84, verses 82-98; Ch. 87, verses 8-12*

284 GEOORAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

sections have one stanza in common, which is introduced in one
case by the passage kirtayanti purdtandh^ showing that it was an
old gdihd handed down by tradition. The stanza runs as
follows :

t^553£it 'T5rr i

-A 'O <c %

That it was an old traditional gdtha is also clearly demonstrated
by the fact that the same verse is quoted, sometimes with slight
modifications (not affecting the reference to Gaya), again in the
Anusasanika-parvan^ and in the Rdmdyana^ as well as in
numerous Puranas^ and Dharmasastra works.^ In many of
these works, the verse is introduced as a gdtha sung by the Pitrs
or Rsis. There cannot be any doubt that this gdtha was com-
posed many centuries bejfbre the Pala age and probably even
before the rise of the Guptas in the fourth century A.D.

The Mahdbhdrata (III* 95 ) describes how, at Brahma-
saras (within Gaya), Rdjarsi Gaya, son of Amurtarayas, per-
formed many sacrifices distinguished by ‘hundreds of mountains
of food and thousands of lakes of clarified butter, many hundred
rivers of curds, and streams of curries in thousands^ and how
people in all lands used to sing gdthds on the subject. Else-
where the same work (VII. 64) speaks of Gaya’s sacrificial
altar of solid gold that was 30 yojanas long, 26 yojanas broad
and 24: yojanas high and how, upon the completion of sacrifice,
25 hills of food remained over together with many lakes and
rivulets of savoury drinks. In consequence of this glorious per-
formance, Brahma-saras and the ‘eternal-making banyan-tree’
(i. e. the Aksaya-vata ) at the place are stated to have become
famous throughout the three worlds.® The same saintly king
named Gaya is also known from the Rdmdyanaj^ Bhdgavata

I. Gf, critical ed.. III. 85. 7,

3. Gh. 88- 14.

3. Ayodhya-kanda^ 107. 13.

4. Gf. Maisya, 22. 6; 208. 40; 'Vdyu^ 83. 12; 105. 10; Kurma, II. 34.

Brahma^ 220- 32; Padma, Srsti-klianda, ii. 65 or 68, and Adi-khanda,

38, ij; J^dradtyay Uttara-khanda, 44- 5-6; etc,

5. Gf. Visnu, 83*63; Atri, verse 55; Bihaspati, verse 21; Likhita,
verse 10 ; etc. {{Tnavtmsaiisamkiid, Calcutta, pp. 4, 1135 347, 428).

6. See also S, Soerenson, An Index io the J\fames in the Mahdbhdrata^ pp,
302-03

7* Ayodhya-kanda, Gh. 107.

cayA

285

Furdna^ Brahmanda Purdna^^ Agni Purdnay^ Visnu Purdnay^ Vdmana
Purdnay^ etc., although his parentage is sometimes given
differently. The antiquity of the tradition is definitely proved
by Asvaghosa’s Buddhacarita^ composed in the first or second
century A.D., during the age of the Kusanas. This work
speaks of the Buddha’s visit to the hermitage called ^the city
of the royal sage Gaya’. The same person was later conceived
as a great giant.^ The demon’s body is said to have been 125
yojanas in height and 60 yoj anas in girth. It will be seen that,
while the 25 hills of the Mahdbhdrata story were imagined to
explain the existence of sacred hills in the Gaya area, the
huge body of the demon was conceived as the hilly region,
studded with holy spots, extending from Gaya to the coastal
areas of the Bay of Bengal. Gaya’s head was believed to be
represented by Gaya-siras or Gaya-sirsa (Gaya-siras or Gaya-
sirsa) at Gaya while Viraja or Jajpur in the Cuttack District
of Orissa and Pithapuram in the E. Godavari District of
Andhra Pradesh were taken to represent respectively his navel
and feet,® The frequent mention of the shaking of the earth
in this context in the Vdyu Pur ana (Gh. 106) possibly hints at
earthquakes that occasionally depopulated Gaya.®

It may be noticed in this connection that the Tdjnavalkya-
sarhhitdy which does not specially deal with iirtha-mdhdimyay also
recognises the greatness and sanctity of Gaya ( (Acar-adhyaya,
verse 261 ) :

The code of Yiyhavalkya has to be assigned to the fourth century

I- V, Gh. 15.

а. Gh. 34.

3. Gh. 107.

4. IV, Gh. II.

5. Gh. 76.

б. XII 87-88.

7. Gf. V^u Puranay Ch. 105 fT., etc.

8. N, L. Dey, Geographical DicUonary^ pp, 64-65.

9. Gf. the deserted appearance of the holy place referred to by the
Chinese pilgrims.

286

GECXJRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAI. INDIA

alth:)ug:h some scholars are inclined to ascribe it to ^the
first two centuries of the Christian era or even a little earlier.’*
That Gaya was a famous place of pilgrimage during the
Gupta age is also clear from the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims.
Fa-hien visited the place about the beginning of the fifth century
when the locality offered a rather deserted appearance.* Accord-
ing to Hiuen-tsang, who visited Gaya about 637 A.D., ‘^^This city
was strongly situated, but had few inhabitants; there were about
1000 Brahmana families, descendants of the original Rsi, and
these were not subject to the king, and were treated by all with
reverence. .. .From ancient times, sovereigns who have spread
their good government to distant peoples and in merit have
excelled previous dynasties, all ascend this mountain (the
Gaya mountain to the south-west of the city) and solemnly
announce what they have done. On the top of the mountain
was a stone Tope {Stupa) above 100 feet high built by Asoka at
the place where Buddha uttered the Pao-yun and other Sutras.”^
The Pao-yun has been taken to be the Ratnagarbhasutra said to
have been communicated to the disciples of the Buddha, assemb-
led on the Gaya-siras or Gaya-sirsa (Gaya-^iras or Gaya-sirsa )
hill, identified by many scholars with the modern Brahmayoni
hill near Gaya. The objections to this identification and to the
location of ancient Gaya at the site of the present city of that
name are not quite convincing. Moreover, those who object
do not say that the ancient Gaya tirtha lay far away from present
Gaya in a region outside Bihar. The Brahmanas of Gaya re-
ferred to in the Chinese account are no doubt the ancestors of
the celebrated Gayala Brahmanas of today. These Brahmanas
are mentioned in the iSaktipur copper-plate inscription® of king
Laksmanasena (aVra 1179-1206 A.D. ) of Bengal. They appear
to have claimed descent from Rdjar^i Gaya. Hiuen-tsang’s
observations show beyond doubt that Gaya was already a
famous holy place long before the seventh century, if not actually
in the age of the Maurya emperor Asoka {circa 269-232 B.C. ).

1. Gf. Cambridge History of India ^ Vol. I, p. 279.

2. Kane, op. cit,, Vol. I, p. 187.

3. Gf. A Record of the Buddhist Kingdom^ translated by James L.egge, pp.
87 ff.

4. Watters, On Tuan Chuang^s T'raieh in India^ Vol. II, pp. iio-ii,

Ep. Ind., Vol. XXI, pp. 216 ff.

GAYA 287

But there is evidence to show that Gaya is a much older tirtka
even earlier than the age of the Buddha.

Gaya as a personal name, with which the holy place called
Gaya or Gaya (cf. Gaya-siras or Gaya® and Gaya-sirsa or
Gaya®) is intimately associated, is well known from the Rgmda^
and AtharvavedaJ^ The unanimous testimony of the Puranic
writers and medieval lexicographers suggests that the Gaya
region was known to the Rgvedic seers as Kikata.^ Although
pilgrimage to holy places for the sake of merit seems to be a Non-
aryan religious institution which took some time in being fully
approved by the Brahmanical society, the importance of the holy
hill called Gaya-siras at Gaya appears to have been recognised
in very early times. This is suggested by Yaska’s Mirukta (12-
19) which, while explaining the Vedic passage tredhd nidadhe
padam^^ quotes the view of an earlier authority named Aurna-
vabha saying that Visnu plants his foot at Samarohana, Visnu-
pada and Gaya-siras. These were evidently three holy spots.
Since in the whole of India, there is only one Gaya-siras or
Gaya-sirsa (Gaya-siras or Gaya-sirsa) near Gaya in Bihar,
the tradition, attributed to Aurnavabha by Yaska who is
believed by scholars to have flourished between 700 and 500
B-C.,^ certainly points to the antiquity of Gaya as a recognised
holy place of old. The conclusion is supported by the frequent
mention of the holy spots at Gaya and its neighbourhood in
early Buddhist literature.

The earliest literary works of the Buddhists very often
mention Gaya (also Gaya-tirtha, Gaya-sirsa, Gaya-nadi and
Gaya-puskarini ) as well as a festival held there and called Gaya-
phalgu or Gaya-phalguni. See the Vinayapitaka^^ Samyuttanikdya^^
AnguUaranikdya^^ Suttanipdta^ etc. All these works are to be
assigned to dates before the beginning of the Christian era. The
Buddha is stated to have stayed at Gaya on several occasions.

I. V. 9- i; X. 63. I and 64- i.

2- I. 14. 4.

3. Gf. Raychaudhuri Studies in Indian Antiquities, pp. 17-19.

4. Rgveda, I. 22. 17.

5. Winternitz, op, cit,, Vol. I, p. 69, note.

6* Ed. Oldenberg, Vol. I, pp. 8, 34.

7- P. T, S., Vol. I, p. 207.

8, P. T. S., Vol. IV, p. 302.

9. P. T, S., p. 47.

288

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

It was at Gaya-sirsa that the well-known Gaydsutra was preached
by him.^ The evidence of the Buddhist works of the Gupta
age supports what has already been said above on the strength
of Brahmanical literature. Buddhaghosa (5th century) applies
the name Gaya both to a locality and a bathing place near it;
but Dharmapala {circa 6th century)^ in his Uddna commen-
tary® mentions Gaya-nadi and Gaya-puskarini as two distinct
bathing places, both known as Gaya-tirtha and supposed to
possess the power to wash away sins: "People went there,
offered sacrifices to the gods, recited the Vedas, and immersed
themselves in the water.”-^ In Buddhist literature, Gaya is
sometimes called Brahma-Gaya (cf. the name of old Brahma-
saras and of modern Brahmayoni at Gaya) to avoid its con-
fusion with the Buddha’s Gaya.

The facts discussed above do not appear to support the
contention that Gaya became an all India tzrtha during the
age of the Palas {circa 750-1200 A.D.).

1. Cf. Anguttaranikdyay Vol. IV, pp. 302 ff. ; Mahdvagga^ I. 21. i (S.B.E,,
Vol XIII, p. 134).

2. Gf. Winternitz, op. ctt.., VoL II, p. 205-

3. P. T. S*, pp. 74-75; cf. Suttanipdta commentary, P.T.S., VoL I,
p. 301.

4 -. Malalasckcra, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names,, Vol. I, p. 752.

Chapter XXII

UDABHANIDA

In the Vaijayanti,^ composed by Yadavapraka^a in the
11th century A.H)., there is a passage which runs : Gandhdras^tu
Dihandds —syuh^ ‘the Gandharas are also known as the I>ihan<Jas^*
The name Gandhara signifying a people and their territory
lying in Uttarapatha^ in the north-western region of India, is
well known to all students of Indian history. According to
some late lexicons^^ Gandhara has to be identified with Xan-
dhahara, i.e. Kandahar in Southern Afghanistan. But this
is a mistake due to the similar sounds of the two names. Although
it may be tempting to conjecture that modern Kandahar
owes its name to the Gandhara occupation of Southern Afgha-
nistan in the early period of Indian history, there is little doubt
that the name is a corruption of that of the city of
Alexandria founded by Alexander the Great (Persian Iskandar
or Sikandar) in the land of the Arachosians near the site of
modern Kandahar. There is definite evidence as regards the
location of the Gandhara janapada about the present Rawal-
pindi District of the Punjab and the Peshawar District of the
old INTorth-West Frontier in Pakistan.^ According to epic and
Puranic traditions, the Gandhara vis ay a ^ which lay on both
sides of the Indus, contained two great cities called Taksasila
and Puskalavati. The remains of Taksasila lie immediately
to the east and north-east of the Saraikala Railway Junction,
20 miles north-west of Rawalpindi, in the valley of the river
Haro- There are remains of three distinct cities, of which the
southernmost and oldest occupied the site of an elevated plateau
now known as the Bhir Ivlound. The ancient city of Puskala-
vati or Puskaravati, ‘the city of lotuses'*, was situated on the
Swat in the modern Prang-Gharsadda-Mir Ziyarat region,
about 17 miles north-east of Peshawar.

1. Faryaya-bhaga, III. i. 124.

2. Gf. ^abdakalpadruma^ s. v.

3. Gf. Rayciiaudhuri, Ind*^ PP* 124-25.

290

GEOGRAPHY OR ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

It is however really curious that Dihanda^ as the name of
the famous Gandhara people, is known from no other source
excepting the Vatjayanti, This name seems- therefore to have
been actually based on a wrong reading of the manuscripts of
Yadavaprakasa’s work, whose geographical section is full of
mistakes.^ A people is known not only after the land occupied
by them, but very often also after their capital city, and we have
to see if the form Dihand a may be associated with the name of
the early medieval capital of the Gandhara country.

Al-Biruni, who was a contemporary of Yadavaprakasa
and wrote his celebrated work on India about 1030 A.D.,
refers to the ‘capital of Al-Kandaliar (Gandhara), i.e. Vai-
hand^* Elsewhere he speaks of ‘Waihind, the capital of
Kandhara (Gandhara), west of the river Sindh%^ which is
said to have been situated 14 farsakh (about 52 miles) to the
south-east of Purshawar (Peshawar). Both here and in
another context,^ AI-Biruni locates Vaihand (Waihind) bet-
ween Peshawar and the river Jhelam. There is no doubt that
Vaihand has to be identified with modern Und near Attock
on the Indus. As Raychaudhuri points out,® a Muslim
work Hudud-ul ^Alam (982-83 A.D.) speaks of Waihind

as a big city, with some Muslim population, under king
Jayapala who was a feudatory of the Ray of Kanauj, probably
Pratihara Vijayapala. The Sanskrit form of the name is
Udabhandapura (or Udakabhandapura ) which was the
capital of the great iSahi king Lalliya (r. 875-90 A.D. ) and
his successors according to the Rdjatarangim of Kalhana. Ac-
cording to Firishta, the dominions of the iSahi king Jayapala
(c. 965-1001 A.D.), son of Ishtpal (probably the same as
Asatapaladeva known from his coins), extended in length
from Sirhind to Lamghan and in breadth from the kingdom
of Kashmir to Multan. This ruler is further said to have
resided in a fort, the correct reading of whose name is ap-
parently Vaihand, although some writers wrongly take it to

I- Tavands=^iu Huruskardfi (i'tc — 'Tutuskakah) ^ Sdkhayo (j&io — Sdhqyo)i

Suryarak^ddayaft (sic — Surpdrak^); Traipurds=^tu Hahdla^ {sic — J>abhdld^)i etc.

2. Sachau, Alb, Ind,, Vol. I, p. 259.

3. Ihid,^ p. ao6.

4. Ibid.^ p. 317.

5. Proc. me, 1939, p. 670,

UDABHAl^mA

291

be Bhatinda in the former Patiala State. Firishta frequently re-
fers to Jayapala as the Raja of Lahore and, as the king resided in
the Vaihand fort ^for the convenience of taking steps for opposing
the Muhammadans^ it is hardly possible that the historian
could have referred to a locality in the Eastern Punjab. It seems
that, when the J§ahi possessions lying west of the Indus were
threatened by the Turkish Musalmans of Ghazni, Jayapala
transferred his capital from ancient Udabhandapura to Lahore.
But even then he himself resided at the old capital which now
became the advance base of his operations against the Muhamma-
dans. It is thus possible that the passage Gandhdrds^tu Dih^
andds^syuh is actually a mistake for Gandhdrds===t -=^tJdabhdndds
^syuhy ^the Gandharas are also known as the Udabhandas’.
But Udahanda was probably another form of the name.

According to traditions/ the Kusana emperor Kaniska,
who ruled over extensive regions in India and Central Asia,
had his capital at the city of Purusapura (modern Peshawar)
in the Gandhara country. Al-Biruni^ says that Kanik {i.e.
Kaniska) belonged to a dynasty of Hindu kings called iSahis who
were Turks of Tibetan origin and at fir^t began to reign in Kabul.
The last king of this house was Laga Turman {i.e, Toramana)
who was overthrown by his Brahmana minister Kaliar, a prede-
cessor of Jayapala. Scholars have suggested the identification
of Al-Biruni’s Kaliar with the great Lalliya ^ahi mentioned in
the RdjdtaranginL It is, however, interesting to note that Kalhana
represents the Sahis as Ksatriyas. It has also to be remembered
that the Kashmirian author does not make any distinction bet-
ween the early 3§ahis and the Brahmana Sahis who, according
to Al-Biruni, succeeded them. We are told^ that, even before

2 .

Sachau, op» cit.^ VoL II, pp. 10-14.
Gf, Rajatar.y IV. 140-43 :

292 GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT AND MEBIEVAE INDIA

the reign of king Lalitaditya {c. 730-66 A.D. the Sahi-mukhyas,
or chiefs belonging to the Sahi family, were employed in the
Kashmir administration as Is/Lahapratihdra^ Mahdsdndhivigrahikay
M.ahdSvasdlika^ Alahabhandagdrika and Mahdsddhanika^ the panca-
makdiabda later conferred by king Lalitaditya on a single official
named Mitrasarman whom he seems to have made his viceroy
at Kanauj after having subdued king Yasovarman. Of the
Later J^ahis, described as Brahmana by Al-Biruni, Kalhana
mentions Lalliya’s successor and his son Kamaluka Toramana
(no doubt the same as Kamlu of Al-BirunI, and Kamlu Ray
of Hindustan mentioned by other Arab writers), a contemporary
of ^Amr ibn Layth who ruled in the Khorasan-Kabul region
about the last two decades of the ninth century A.D. Kamaluka
is said to have been raised to the throne about 902-04 A.D. by
a Kashmirian general. Kalhana also speaks of the §ahi kings
Bhima and Thakkana. The former, who was the maternal
grandfather of Didda, queen of the Kashmirian king Ksema«
gupta (950-58 A.D. ), built a temple of Visnu in Kashmir during
Ksemagupta’s rule. A general of the Kashmirian king Abhi-
manyu (958-72 A.D.) is said to have defeated the Sahi king
Thakkana who may have been the grandfather of Jayapala.
The latest ;§ahi king mentioned by Kalhana is Trilocanapala
(1013-21 A.D.) whose struggle with the Hammira, i.e. Sultan
Mahmud of Ghazni, is also described. Then, after having
referred to the final collapse of Sahi rule in another context,
the Kashmirian author says that even in his days, L e. in the
^ddle of the 12th century A.D., ^the appellation Sahi throws
its lustre on a numberless host of Ksatriyas abroad, who trace
their origin to that royal family’.^

It will be seen that the Kashmirians, who knew the Sahis
from before the middle of the eighth century down at least to the
twelfth, regarded them as Ksatriyas, although Al-Biruni refers to
the Hindu ^ahis of Turko-Tibetan origin and their successors
of Brahmana origin. That the early Sahis were regarded, in
spite of their foreign origin, as Ksatriyas in India is also indicated

f«rdT: i

I, VIII. 3230. may mean Brahma-K§atri}a,

293

tJDABHANDA

by another evidence. In the second quarter of the 7th century
A.D,;, when the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-tsang was passing through
Uttarapatha, Udakahanda^ or Udabhandapura was the place of
residence or a secondary capital of the emperor of Kapi^a which
then dominated over ten neighbouring States and comprised
Lampaka (Laghman), Nagara or Nagarahara (Jalalabad
Gandhara and Varna (Bannu) and probably also Jaguda
(Southern Afghanistan with Ghazni as the chief city). About
Gandhara^ the pilgrim says that its capital was Purusapura ;
'the royal family was extinct and the country was subject to
Kapisa; the towns and villages were desolate and the inhabitants
were very few^® It seems that, under pressure of the Turks
from the north and the Arabs from the south and west, the kings
oi Kapisa left their western possessions in the hands of viceroys/
and made Udabhanda their principal seat of residence. The
reason why Udabhandapura was selected in preference to the
older capital Peshawar is at present unknown. But it is possible
that the new city was built by the Kapi:Sa kings for strategic
reasons.

The facts that Kalhana speaks of the J§ahis with reference
to the period earlier than that of Lalitaditya (c. 730-66 A.D. )
and of Udabhanda as the capital of the iSahis at least from the
time of Lalliya (c, 875-90 A.D. ) and that Chinese evidence refers
to the city as the residence of the emperor of Kapisa about 645
A.D. would suggest that Hiuen-tsang’s king of Kapisa was a
Sahi ruler. It is interesting to note that this king has been des-
cribed by Hiuen-tsang as a Ksatriya.®

1. This seems to be the Indian form that was at the root of the Chinese
Wu-to-kia-kan-cha. Cf. Watters, On Tuan Chwang^s Travels in India, Voi. I,
p. 221.

2. Gf. Ray, Dynastic History of Korthern India, Vol. I, pp. 6o-6i.

3. Watters, op. ctt.. p. 199.

4. These viceroys appear to have been mentioned as the Satraps of
Zaranj, capital of Seistan, and Rantbil or Rutbil (probably Sanskrit Ptdnta-
pdla) or Z^nhil (probably Sanskrit Janapala) ruling over Southern Afgha-
nistan. Whether the Kabul-Shdk was a viceroy or ‘the §ahi of Kabul’ indi-
cating the paramount ruler cannot be determined. Cf. Ray, op. cit . . pp. 1 65 ff-

5. Watters, op. cit., p. 123.

Chapter XXIlI

TARKARI, SRAVASTI AND DHAJECA

The Kolagallu (967 A.D.) and Kudatini (971 A.D.)
inscriptions were published respectively in the Epigraphia
Indica, Vol. XXI, pp. 260 fF., and South Indian Inscriptions,
Vol. IX, Part i, p. 43, No. 70. Recently a scholar has
quoted two stanzas (the first occurring in the Kudatini epi-
graph and the second in both the Kolagallu and Kudatini
records) in an interesting note on Tarkari published in the
Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXXV, No. 3, September
1959, pp. 271-73.

Both the inscriptions record the installation of the god
Skanda-Karttikeya by Gadadhara described as a good ascetic
(sutapasvin) apparently belonging to a Brahmana family of the
Sandilya gotra, who was born at Tada-grama and used to sit only
on an iron seat {lok-dsanin), and as the crest-jewel of the Gauda
country or people and the illuminator of the Varendri cotmtry.^^
Thus Gadadhara was an inhabitant of Tada-grama (identified
with a village near Dinajpur in North Bengal) situated in
Varendri (parts of North Bengal) forming a portion of Gauda
(western and north-western areas of Bengal) . This reminds iis
of Kulluka’s commentary on the Manusmrti, describing the
commentator who was originally an inhabitant of a locality in
Varendri within Gauda. ^

The person who composed the Kolagallu and Kudatini
records of Gadadhara was another man of a family hailing from

JEp^ Ind.y Vol, XXI, p. 1264.

12 .

TARICAM, IkXVASTI ANI> BHAKA

Varendri. The first of the two stanzas in the description of
this person^ which occurs only in the Kudatini inscription,
runs as follows :

TTw:

^*=There is a village in [the area known as] Pahuniyojana
in the inaccessible northern region in the sacred territory of
Varendri which is purified by the Ganges and is always pleas-
ing.” The district of Pahuniyojana, in which the village in
question was situated, thus lay in the northern part of Varendri.
The description of the said part of the territory as durgama^ i.e.
difficult to reach or traverse, reminds us of the fact that the
Damodarpur (Phulbari P.S., old Dinajpur District) inscription
of 542 A, D. describes certain areas of the Kotivarsa vifaya
(Dinajpur region ) in the Pundravardhana bhukti ( 2 . e.
Varendri) as an aranya or forest territory.^ As the lands men-
tioned in the Damodarpur plates appear to have been situated
in the neighbourhood of Vayigrama,^ 2 .^., modern Baigram
near Hili in the Bogra District, the wild tract seems to have
covered the present Hili-Balurghat region of North Bengal,
now partly in West Bengal and partly in East Pakistan.

The said verse is followed in the Kudatini inscription by
another stanza which also occurs in the Kojagallu record. The
text of this verse runs as follows :

^f%Tr?Tfw'Tf3cr: i

cRjw: srf^: fwrg

The interpretation of the stanza as published in the Epi*
graphia Indica and quoted in the Indian Historical Quarterly is
defective. As they stand, the first and second sentences in the

1. SlI, VoL IX. Part i, 43.

2. Select liiscriptwm, p. 336; above, p. 281.

3. StL Ins.^ p. 325; above, p- 276,

4. This is the reading of the Kolagaiiu insciiption. The printed text
of the iCudatmi inscription has ^tdmasja ‘rulkdtilo,

5. The rest of the stanza s not found in the published text ol the
Kudatini inscription.

296 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

first half of the stanza mean to say that the village in Pahuni-
yojana, referred to in the stanza quoted previously^ which was
the habitation of learned Brahmanas, bore the name ^ri-
Karmara-kula (literally ^the illustrious blacksmiths* family or
residence’) and, after having separated itself from Tarkari,
became pure in course of time and that the learned Rsi was
born in the said village. ^Becoming pure in the course of time’
would then mean that the stigma of the association with black-
smiths was gradually removed by the settlement of the learned
Brahmanas. In that case, the person in question would
appear to have been a Brahmana. But the mention of this
person without the name of his gotra renders it doubtful that
he was a Brahmana. Moreover, the above interpretation of
the verse involves the unnecessary repetition of the word grama
in the second stanza. Considering the number of errors in the
engraved text, it is therefore not impossible to think that the
first foot of the stanza has to be read as Sri-Karmdra-kul-dhvayo
dvijavara^grdmdt =^tu Tarkdrito. In this case, the subject of the
verb samabhavat (became) in the passage Tarkdrito niskramya
krama-^nirmalas = samabhavat ( became gradually pure after having
come out of Tarkari) would be the family of the blacksmiths and
not the village as suggested by the text as it is. If this is accep-
ted, the word varhiak has to be understood with Sri-Karmdra-kul--
dhvayah and the passage would then mean ^[a family] known
as the community of blacksmiths’.^

I . If such is the case, the composition of the prasasU by a person of
the blacksmith community of Bengal would be an interesting fact In this
connection, it has to be noted that the poet’s family is stated to have become
pure gradually after having left their original home in a village dominated
by Brahmanas. This may suggest that, after settling elsewhere, the mem-
bers of the family gave up their hereditary profession. Although it was
generally the Brahmanas who acquired proficiency in the Sanskrit language
and received honour at the royal courts for their learning, a large number
of Sanskrit pradastts are known to have been composed by members of the
non- Brahmana communities, especially the Kayasthas In Bengal, the Vaidya
or physician community was always famous for their Sanskrit learning and
produced great poets and Sanskritists like the celebrated Umapatidhara and
Bharatarnallika, and there are also some ptasttshs composed by poets belong-
ing to this community, rhiring the rule of the Buddhist kings of East India
such as those of the Pala dynasty, Sanskrit learning docs not appear to have
been confined to the Brahmanas.

337 ’ 343; R- D. Banerji,

PaXas of Bengal (Mem. A.S.B., VoL V, No. 3), pp. 78, 82.

The

TARKAM, SRAVAim AND DHAKA

297

The Silimpur inscription^ describes the village called
Balagrama^ which was situated in the Pundra country {£.<?•
Pundravardhana-bhukti ) and was an ornament of Varendri, as
an offshoot {prasuta) of Tarkari, which was attached to iSravasti,
and as having the Sakati [river] intervening between Tarkari
and Balagrama, while the Brahmana village called Vaigrama
in Savathi (Sravasti) mentioned in the Guakuchi plate^
of king Indrapala of Pragjyotisa, is apparently the modern
Baigram near Hili. There is a controversy among scholars
some of whom are inclined to locate the places in U. P. while
others assign them to North Bengal.^ It is however now clear
that the Hili-Balurghat region is called Sravasti in these records
and Pahuniyojana in the Kudatini inscription. It appears
that a large number of Brahmanas of Sravasti in the ancient
Kosala country in Madhyadesa the Set-Mahet region

in the Gonda and Bahraich Districts of U- P. )y especially of
Tarkari in that region, were settled in the Hili-Balurghat area
in North Bengal and that these Brahmanas named their new
settlements after their old habitations in XJ. P.^ It may be
that iSravasti was the new name of what was originally called
Pahuniyoj ana*

It may be pointed out in this connection that Tarkari, the
home of the Brahmana donee, is located in some records in
Madhyadesa® while, according to the evidence of the Damodar-
pur inscriptions there was enough state land of the uncultivated
class for disposal in the Hili-Balurghat region.® Another fact
to which attention may be drawn is that the Brahmanas of
a village named Krodahca, Krodahji, Kxodahja, Kolahca,
K-olahca, etc., apparently situated in U. P. and very probably
in the jSravasti area, were highly respected by the Brahmanas
of Mithila in the early medieval period.^ It is not possible to

1. Ep, Ind,, Vol. XIII, p. 290.

2. P. N. Bhattacharya, Komar upasdsandr alt, p. 137.

3. See History of Bengal, VoL I, ed. Majumdar, p. 579, note i.

4. Wc may refer in this connection to Pataliputtiiani in the South
Arcot District {ARE. p. 1918-19, p. 25), which was apparently so named
by some people settling there from Pataiiputra (near Patna ' , called a
Bhatp-dgrabdra in early medieval epigraphs {Ep, Ind., \"ol. XXXII, pr •
119, 126).

5. Gf. Ind*AnUy VoL XVII, p.

6. Gf., e. g.. Select Inscriptions, p. 284, note 10, etc.

7* Gf. Ep, Ind.f VoL XXIX, pp. 32-33.

§98 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AN3D MEOIEVAL INDIA

believe that Maithila Brahmanas could have been so much res-
pectful towards the Brahmanas of North Bengal. Moreover,
according to certain traditions, the ancestors of the Kulina
Brahmanas of Bengal hailed from the said locality. The same
village called Kro<Janja is stated to have been situated in Sravasti
in the J§ubhahkarapataka grant^ of king Dharmapala of Prag-
jyotisa and it is very probable that this Sravasti is identical with
the Hili-Balurghat region of North Bengal. Thus several
places in the said region appear to have been named after some
celebrated Brahmana villages in the Sravasti area of U. P.

Dacca is the Anglicised form of the name of the capital of
East Pakistan (East Bengal). It is written in Bengali as Dhaka
(cf the same word literally meaning ^covered’). The principal
deity worshipped there is called Dhakesvari. The name Dacca
is also applied to a District and a Division of the State. The
real meaning of the name Dhaka (Dacca) has not been satisfac-
torily determined, although ^Dacca Muslin" was famous in the
medieval world and Dhaka (apparently derived from the name
in question) was the name applied to all muslins, imported
through Kabul, throughout Central Asia. Prior to 1801, the
annual advances for the Dacca muslin are said to have amounted
to ;^250,000.

According to the Hobson- Jobson by Henry Yule and
A. G. Burnell, the name is derived from the tree called
phak or Palas, and means ‘the wood of Dhak trees ". 2 But no-
body has taken the explanation seriously. According to some
writers, Dacca is a corruption of the name of the ancient state of
Davaka mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription of
Samudragupta as a pratyanta^ i. e. a state bordering on the
Gupta empire, about the middle of the fourth century A.D.® Un-
fortunately the theory was always viewed at with a considerable
amount of doubt and recent writers on the subject believe that
the ancient kingdom of Davaka lay actually about the Daboka
region in the valley of the Kapili river running through the
Nowgong District of Assam.^

1. P. N. Bhattacharya, op» ett,^ p, 155 and corrigenda.

2. Ed. W. Grooke, London, 1903, p. 290.

3. JPASB, lijio, p. 144.

4. Gf. Select Inset tptiom, p. 258, note i*

TABKARI, SRAVASTI ANU pHAKA

It is usually believed that the fame and prosperity of Dacca
are not older than the days of the Great Mughuls. We know
that the city is not traced in any record of the pre-Muslim
period of Indian history. For a few centuries before and after
the Muslim conquest of West Bengal in the beginning of the
thirteenth century, the celebrated city of Vikramapura was the
administrative headquarters of East Bengal, There is difference
of opinion as regards the location of this city ; but some authors
appear to be right in holding that it was washed away in the
early medieval period by the waters of the Padma whose erosive
activities in the neighbourhood of Dacca have earned for her
the name Kirtindid^ literally meaning ^destroyer of fame {i,e,
the fame-producing works of men)’. Nothing is known about
the existence of the city of Dacca even long after the expansion
of Muslim rule over East Bengal. During this period the neigh-
bouring city of Suvarnagrama or Sonargaon became the poli-
tical centre of East Bengal. In the early years of the seventeenth
century, during the reign of the Mughul emperor Jahangir,
Sheikh ^Alauddin Islam Khan (1608-13 A.D.) was appoint-
ed governor of the Subah of Bengal. Islam Khan transferred
the provincial capital from Rajmahal to Dacca where he
built a brick fort and a palace. It has been said that Islam
Khan’s desire to subdue the Portuguese and Arakanese pirates,
who were ravaging South-East Bengal about that time, was
the main cause of the transference of the provincial headquarters
to Dacca. The new capital of the province was styled Jahangir-
nagar after the reigning Mughul emperor. The fame and
prosperity of Dacca began from this time.

Although Dacca thus seems to have become a great city
only in the early years of the seventeenth century, there is reason
to believe that it enjoyed some amount of political importance
even in the early Muslim and pre-Muslim periods. This is not
only indicated by Islam Khan’s choice of the place as the pro-
vincial capital,^ but also by the very name of Dacca itself.

Stewart regards Dacca as a modern town since he could not
trace its name in Abul Fazl’s Ain-^i-Akbari which gives an ex-
haustive account of Akbar’s dominions; but H. Blochman point-

I. For some pre- Mughul and even pre-XIuhammadan relics in the
Dacca area and other interesting observations, sec ‘An Enquiry into the
Origin of Dacca’ by N. K. Bhattasali, JRASB, Letters, \oh \\ pp. 447-53.

300

GEOGRAPHY OP ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAl INDIA

ed out that the Mahall to which it belonged is actually mentioned
in the AinA~Akbar% as Dhakka Bazu, although in Gladwin’s
translation of the work the name is spelt as Dukha Bazoo,^
Blochman further points out that Dhaka also occurs in Abul
Fazl’s Akbamamah composed in 1584 A.D. and that A. Phayre
refers it to 1400 A-D.^

The name Dhaka (Dacca) is apparently a Prakrit corrup-
tion of Sanskrit Dhakka (or possibly DhakkaJca), As a matter of
factj this form of the name (together with the variant Dhakka)
is found in a large number of records belonging to the late
medieval period. The word dhakka is no doubt derived from
Sanskrit dhakka^ meaning “^a drum% and it is interesting to note
that the celebrated Kashmir chronicle, the Rdjatarahgini com-
posed by Kalhana about the middle of the twelfth century, uses
dhakka in the technical sense of a ‘drum-station’ or ‘watch-
station’*

The Rdjatarahgini (III. 227 ) has the following verse :

^frsg- 1 1

“Then he (poet Matrgupta ) reached, in the province of Kxama-
varta, the Dhakka called Kambuva, which is at present stationed
at Surapura.” The same Dhakka is mentioned elsewhere
(V- 39) in the following verse :

‘Tn the excellent town of Surapura, founded by him (z-^.
Sura who was a minister of king Avantivarman, 856-83 A.D. ),
was lodged the Dhakka of the province of Kramavarta.”

In the same section of the Rdjatarahgini we have a third
verse (V. 306 ) that runs as follows :

“Then on one occasion Gakravarman (king of Kashmir,
923-37 A.D.), stripped of splendour, entered at night in the
house of Sariigrama who was the chief of the ddmaras
(landlords) and was living at the beautiful ][>hakkaJ^^

1. See JASB^ 1873^ Part I, p. 216, note; Blochman ’s Ain^i-Akhari
text, p. 407.

a. Gf. JASB, op^ cit,y p. 53.

TARKARI, SRAVASTI ANO BHAICA

301

Scholars have suggested that there was in ancient Kashmir
a famous watch-station at the village of 3§urapura (modern
Hurpor). Drums must have been at the watch-station and were
sounded to announce to the people emergencies like the advent
of enemies or royal proclamations. It is therefore clear that
^the J)hakka called Kambuva* really means Hhe watch-station
that was situated at the locality called KLambuva’- This fyhakka^
originally stationed at Kambuva in the province of Krama-
varta^ was transferred in the ninth century to the village of
Surapura in the same province. The expression Kramavarta-
pradeia-stha seems to suggest that different pradesas of the ancient
kingdom of Kashmir were endowed each with a Dhakka.

It seems to us that Dhaka (Dacca) was a similar watch-
station during the days of the pre-Muslim rulers of East Bengal
and thus had some political importance even in the early period.
This suggestion appears to be supported by a passage in the
Prdkrtdnuidsana by Purusottama who is said to have adorned
the court of king Laksmanasena {circa 1179-1206 A.D. ) of
Bengal. The only manuscript of this work so far discovered is
known to have been copied in the year 385 of the Newari era of
Nepalj which started from 879 A.D. The date of the copy
is therefore 1264 A.D. The Prdkrtdntddsana describes several
Prakrit dialects called Vibhasa, one of which is given the name
Dhakka-bhdsdy i.e, the dialect spoken in the region known as
Dhakka. It may, however, be argued that Dhakka in this
case does not really refer to Dacca in Eastern Bengal, but is
a corruption of the name of another land called Takka which
was situated in the Punjab. This view can hardly be accepted
since the 'Takkade^fya-vibha^d^ i.e. the dialect spoken in the
Takka country, has been separately mentioned in Purusottama’s
Prdkrtdnusdsana?‘ There are a few places called Dhakka^ the
most famous among them being the one, now called Dhdkd
(Dacca) in Eastern Bengal (East Pakistan).^

I. See Sircar , -4 Grammar of the Prakrit Limgvage, Calcutta, 1943- pp-
1 14, 1 18.

2- Cf. Dhakka on the Kabul near the eastern border of Afghanistan;
Dhaka in P, S. Tilhar, Shahjahanpur District, U.P. ; Dhaka on the northern
border of the Ghamparan District, Bihar; andJal-Dhaka in the Nilphamari
Sub-Division of the Rangpur District, East Pakistan. See J(ian. As, S(C,
Fak,^ VoL III, pp. 199 ff.

302 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDBEVAJL INDIA

It may also be argued that Dacca could have hardly
enjoyed so much cultural influence in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, when the political centre of the country was not at
that place, but at the neighbouring city of Vikramapura (and
later at Suvarnagrama in the same neighbourhood) to stamp
its name on the dialect spoken in the locality. In our opinion,
however, such a possibility is not altogether out of question.

Chapter XXIV

KAI^AFRIYA ANI> BRAHMASILA

There is an interesting passage in Rajasekhara’s Kdiya-
mimdrhsa^ which refers to the Antarvedi tract bounded by the
Ganges in the north, the Jamuna in the south, Vinasana (the
same as Kuruksetra according to the ITrikandaSesa^) in the west
and Prayaga (Allahabad ) in the east. Thereafter the passage
runs —

feft I

^TPTT^^r: I fefTwrrr i cm

cr ^TRTf^Tf^^r: ^ ^ ^flw: ^

The reference to the four localities — Vamanasvamin in the west,
Brahmasila in the east, Gadhipura in the north and Kalapriya
in the south — is very interesting to the student of the historical
geography of ancient India, especially when we know that the
author of the KavyamiTndrhsd lived for long at Xanauj, the capital
of his Pratihara patrons. In the notes appended to the G.O.S.
edition of the above work (pp< 243-44), it has been suggested
that the said four localities were situated respectively in the
western, eastern, northern and southern suburbs of the city of
Xanauj.

It has been pointed out that, according to the Padma Purdna^^
Rama built a temple for the god Vamana at Mahodaya, i.e.
Kanauj. The author of the notes, referred to above, conjectures
that the temple of Vamana was probably situated at the western
end of the city. He admits that Rajasekhara’s own Bdla-'Rdmd^
yana (X. 88) applies the name Gadhipura to Xanauj itself, and
indeed this identification is supported by a number of authori-

1. 0 . 0 . S. edition, 1934, p. 94-

2. III.

3. Dey, Geographical I)iciwnaTy\ p. 87; Padma Pn^cre^ Srsti-lshar
Chapter 35 (Bahgabasi edition, Ch. 38, 186-87); Cttara-kbarda, Ch. 53.

304 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

tics including Hemacandra.^ Still, however, he concludes that
Gadhipura was a locality in the northern suburbs of Kanauj,
while Kalapriya was at its southern end* It has been rightly
pointed out that the dramas of Bhavabhuti, who lived at the
court of king Yasovarman of Kanauj (c. 725-53 A. D. ), were
staged before the audience assembled in connection with the
festivities held in honour of the god Kalapriyanatha, the presid-
ing deity of the locality called Kalapriya* The views of the
commentators on Bhavabhuti’s works identifying Kalapriyanatha
with the god Mahakalesvara of Ujjain or with the presiding
deity of Padmapura, Bhavabhuti ’s birth place, have, again,
been rightly rejected. It has then been suggested that Kala-
priyanatha was probably the presiding deity of the city of Kanauj
which was the capital of Bhavabhuti’s patron and that possibly
the god’s temple was situated in the southern suburbs of the
city* The position of Brahmasila at the eastern end of Kanauj
has been conjecturally determined on the strength of the identi-
fication of the other three localities*

It will be seen that the location of the four places in the
suburbs of Kanauj is actually based on mere conjecture- It
must be admitted that Gadhipura was either another name of
Kanauj or at least the name of a part of the city. We should
therefore search for a locality called Kalapriya to the south of
Kanauj. According to Bhavabhuti’s works, the poet’s ances-
tral home was at Padmapura which lay in the Deccan, to
the south with reference to the shrine of the god Kalapriyanatha.
It is strange that some scholars have identified this Padmapura
with Padam Pawaya (ancient Padmavati ) near Narwar (ancient
Nalapura) in the former Gwalior State*^ The prelude to
Bhavabhuti ’s Viracarita places Padmapura in Daksinapatha or
the Deccan, while the Mdlatimddhavay with more definiteness,
locates it in Vidarbha (modern Berar) in Daksinapatha. The
identification of Bhavabhuti’s birthplace with modern Padam-
pur in the Bhandara District, near the Amgaon Railway Station,
seems to be reasonable. The village of Padampur, it may be
pointed out, lies directly to the south of Kanauj, It is very

I* A }hidht'iacmtdnani^ Bhumi-kanda, vv. 39-40 — ^ 5 Tfq-f 53 f I

See Sircar, Co m, Cecg^^ pp.

104, 107.

2» Qf* Tripathi, History oj Kanauj, p. 209*

KS.LAPRrVA AND BRAHMA^ILA

305

interesting to note that the only Kalapriya known to history
and situated, like both Kanauj and Padampur, to the west oT
long. 80, appears to be modem KalpI on the Jamuna in the
Jalaon District of U. P., about 75 miles directly to the south of
Kanauj. It was an important station between the Ganges-
Jamuna Doab and the South not only during the Muslim period,
but also in the early medieval age. In the first quarter of the
tenth century A.D., when Indra III (915-28 A. D.),i the
Rastrakuta king of the Deccan, was advancing against Kanauj,
the capital of his Pratihara enemies, the Rastrakuta army was
for a time encamped at KalpI where it crossed the Jamuna,
The Cambay plates of Govinda IV give the story in the follow-
ing verse :

?fWf ^•?rw?7rr«rtrqr?rr i

O O V?

rrrwTr^srrfg qrf n®

r. The date of his northern expedition is usual! v supposed to be 916
A. D. as Indra III is believed to have died in 917 A.D. Both the dates arc»
however, wrong since the Rastrakuta king is known to have ruled till 928
A.D. Gf. Ep, Ind., VoL XXxil, pp. 40-50.

2. Gf. Altekar, TThe Rastrakutas and thnr'Ttmes^ p. 102. There is a pun
on the word Kusasthada which indicates the city of Kanauj as well as a field
covered with kusa grass. According to the much exaggerated claim put
forward in the verse, Indra III totally destroyed the city of Kanauj which
from that time became a field of kusa grass. There is however no reason
to believe that the Rastrakutas were successful in razing Kanauj to the
ground or to paralyse Pratihara power in the Doab e\^en for a short period.
That Malwa was occupied by Indra III is concluded from the wrong identi-
fication of Kalapriyanatha with Mahakalesvara of Ujjain. For Pratihara
possession of Malwa, cf. the Partabgarh inscriptions of Mahendrapfla II
dated 946 A. D. The verse —

in the Dcoli (940 A. D.) and Karhad (959 A. D.'i plates of Krsna III does
not imply that the Pratihara fortresses of Kalanjara and Citrafcuta (Chitor)
were captured by the Rastrakutas who, however, merely threatened them.
The claim of Govinda IV having been served by the Ganges and the
Jamuna does not, again, prove his mastery over the Doab, but simply refers
to the decorative representation of Ganga and Yemuna at his palace gate.

prasasti of the Calukya chief Naiasiri ha. probably afiudatcr> cf India
III, to have defeated Pra^^ijiar^ Mahipala I and to have bjitl hh bents

306

geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

It appears that the Rastrakuta king Krsna III (939-67
A.D. ) also encamped at Kalapriya in the course of his Bundel-
khand expedition. This is suggested by the fact that this ruler
developed a fondness for installing gods under the name
Kalapriya in different parts of his empire. A god of this name
was installed by him in the Kahci region near Madras and
another at Kandhar in the Nanded District of Maharashtra.^
The Vardha Purdna speaks of a temple of the Sun-god at Kal-
apriya which is located to the south of the Yamuna.^

The identity of Kalapriya with Kalpi is proved by epi-
graphic evidence. In the Khadavada inscription (1484 A.D.)
of king Ghiyas Khalji of Mandu, Husarhga Gori (Hushang Alp
Khan Ghuri) is represented as having defeated Kadira Sahi
(Abdul Qadir), ruler of Kalapriya-pattana, and as having made
the latter^s son, Salaha, a Khan at Mandu. This Kalapriya-
pattana is apparently different from Ujjain and Kanauj and
is no doubt the same as Kalpi. The name Kalapriya applied
to Kalpi can thus be traced to a date as late as the fifteenth
century A.D.® Kalpi must have formed a part of the Kanauj
kingdom under Yasovarman. The annual fair and festivities
held in honour of Kalapriyanatha were no doubt the most
famous in the whole kingdom. It was, therefore, not at all
unnatural that Bhavabhuti’s dramas were staged on such occa-
sions at Kalpi.

If the Padma Purdna is to be believed, the temple of Vamana-
svamin was situated somewhere in the city of Kanauj. We
should, therefore, search for a locality called Brahmasila to the
east of Kanauj. This Brahmasila seems to be no other than
Barhamshil mentioned by Al-Biruni who says, ^^A man march-
ing from Kanoj to the south between the two rivers Jaun and

at the junction of the Gangd-vdi dhiaytl as found in the Pampa-Bhdiata appears
to be another exaggeration. The decline of the Gurjara Pratiharas had
nothing especially to do with the northern expedition of Indra III. It
was hastened by constant warfare on all fronts and especially by the pro-
tracted struggle for the throne (after the death of Mahipala I ) about the
middle of the tenth century A, D, Cf. Ray, DHNI, Vol. I, pp. 580-90.

1. Ep, Ind., VoL XXXV, pp- 109-10. See below, pp. 311-12.

2. Mirashi, Stud, IndoL^ VoL I, p. 38.

3. See JBBRAS, Vol. XXIII, pp. 12 ff, ; Bhandarkar’s List of
Inscriptions, No. 859.

K^LAPRIYA AND BRAHMA51LA

307

Ganges passes the following well-known places : — J^amau, 12
farsakh from Kanoj, farsakh being equal to four miles or one
Kurok; Abhapuri, 8 Jarsakh; Kuraha, 8 farsakh; BarhamshibS
farsakh; the Tree of Prayaga, 12 farsakh^ the place w'here the
waters of the Jaun join the Ganges, where the Hindus torment
themselves with various kinds of tortures which are described in
the books about religious sects.”^ As regards the measure of
distance, Al-Biruni says that the kroia is equal to ‘one mile%
yojana is equal to ‘8 miles or to 32,000 yards’, and ‘1 kuroh =
I yojana.^’^ One farsakh was therefore equal to 4 Arabic miles
and to English miles.®

Al-Biruni thus gives the distance from Kanauj to Jaijamau
as about 45 miles; from Jajjamau to Abhapuri as about 30 miles;
from Abhapuri to Kuraha as about 30 miles; from Kuraha to
Brahmasila as about 30 miles; and from Brahmasila to Prayaga
or Allahabad as about 45 miles. Brahmasila thus lay about
45 miles to the west or north-west of Allahabad and was
situated in the Doab between Kanauj and Allahabad. It was
therefore to the east or south-east of Kanauj.

1. India, Vol. I, p, 2 oo; Sircar, Casm^ Geog. E. Ind-
Lit , p 155-

2. Sachau, op^ cit,. p. 1C7.

3 . Cf. ibid., Vol. IT, p. 3^^-

Chapter XXV

KAKANMNAGARI ANO KANOHARAPtTRA

A place called Kakandi or Xakandinagari is faraous in
both Jain and Buddhist traditions. The Jains regarded the
locality as the birth place of the Tirthahkara Suvidhinatha,^
while the Buddhists regarded it as the home of an ancient sage
named Klakanda.^ The locality is also known from early epi-
graphic records.® But it does not appear to have so far been
satisfactorily identified.

B- G. Bhattacharya suggested its indentification with the
city of Kliskindha celebrated in the story of the Rdmdyana,^ But
the equation of Kakandi and Ki^kindhd appears to be philolo-
gically unsound- Moreover, Kiskindha in the neighbourhood
of Pampa (modern Hampi in the Bellary District of Mysore
State) is far away from the sphere of activities of the early
Buddhists and Jains* B. G. Law, who has ignored Bhatta-
charya’s suggestion, states that the location of Kakandi of the
Jain and Buddhist literature is unknown.® But there is epi-
graphical evidence to prove that Kakandi, the traditional birth
place of Suvidhinatha, was regarded in the medieval period as
identical with a place now called Kakan which lies within the
jurisdiction of the Sekandra Police Station in the Jamui Sub-
Division of the Monghyr District of Bihar.

About the beginning of the year 1951, I copied three
epigraphs in the Jain temple at Kakan.® The earliest of the
three records is engraved on the pedestal of an image of Parsva-
natha and is dated in Vikrama 1 504, Phalguna-sudi 9 (February,
1448 A.D. ) while the latest is incised on the back of an dydgapata
and is dated in Vikrama 1933 (1876-77 A.D. ). The third insciip-

1. Gf. B. C. Bhattacharya, 'Th^ Jaina Iconography^ pp. 64-65.

2. O. P. Malasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper jSfames, Vol. I, p. 558.

3. See Barua and Sinha, JBarhut Inscriptions ^ p- 18.

4. Loc. cit,

5 - Historical^ Geography of Ancient India^ -p. 91, s, v. Law locates Klakandl
m iNc^thern India, though it was actually situated in Eastern India.

6* See Annual Meport on Indian epigraphy ^ 1 95 0-51, I^os. B 2-4.

KAKANOINAGRI AND KANDHARAPmA SOii

tion^ dated Vikrama 1822, Vaisakha-sudi 6 (April, 1765 A.D.),
is engraved around two foot-marks fixed in front of the image of
Parsvanatha and records the installation of the said foot-marks.
It clearly states that they represent the foot-marks of the Tirthan-
kara Suvidhinatha and that they were installed at Kakandi or
KLakandinagari which was a holy place and was the birth
place of the said Tirthahkara. Some repairs are also stated to
have been carried out apparently in the temple wherein the
foot-marks were installed, and one of the inscriptions seems to
point to the existence of the temple before the middle of the
fifteenth century A.D. Thus the tradition that modern Kakan,
where the inscription has been found, is the same as Kakandi
or Kakandinagari, regarded by the Jains as the birth place of
the Tirthankara Suvidhinatha, can be referred at least to the
late medieval period.

The text of the inscription runs as follows :
ssi qTT: It ^

ii (=^*)

cfr^ffET (ll*)^

The Sanskrit name Krsna was often modified in South
India as Kandara, Kandara, Kandhara, Kandhara, Kanhara,
Kanhara, Kannara and Kannara.^^ Sometimes the same name
is found in the joint form Krsna-Kandhara or Kxsna-KandharaA
The Prakrit name Kannara was also sometimes re-Sanskritised
as Karna.^ The earliest use of such a Prakrit form of the name
is to be found in that of Kandara who was the founder of the
Ananda dynasty of Kandarapura in the Guntur District of
Andhra Pradesh and flourished in the fourth century A.D.^

I. See also P. G. Nahar, Jainalekhasarhgraka^ VoL I, Calcutta, 1918,
p. 41, No, 173,

la. Cf. Bomb, Gaz*i Vol. I, Partii, pp. 244, 334, 410 (note i ), 468, 526,
etc.; Ep, VoL III, ML 19; VoL VII, Sk, 197 (Intr,, p. 27; and 198

(Intr.,p.36); HL 17; Vol. VIII, Sa. 119; VoL X, Bg, 43;VoL XI, Dg. 13.
A similar form of the name was Kahnura (cf. Ray, pp. 340, 565)

probably under Bengali influence.

2- Bomb» Gaz^-^ op, ciu^ pp. 419, 508, 556; JBBRAS^ Vol. X, p. 241.

3. Altekar, The Rdsfrakutas and ihetr Eimes^ p. 12; Ep* Jnd.y Vol.
XKVIir, p. 314, note 4.'

4. Sircar, Eke Sticcessors of the Sdtaudhanas in the Lower Deccan^ pp. 55!!.

310 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

The founder of the Ratta dynasty of Saundatti in the
Belgaum District is stated to have been raised to the position of
a feudatory chieftain by a king named Krsna who has been identi-
fied with the Rastrakuta emperor Krsna III (939-67 A-D-)-^
An inscription of 1218 A. D. represents the said Rattas as the
descendants of the same Krsna, called Krsna-Kandhara, while
another record of 1209 A.D. (?) from Hannikeri near Samp-
gaon in the Belgaum District of Mysore mentions the same king
as Krsna-Kandhara and represents him as Kandhdra-pura-var-‘
adhUvara^ ‘^the supreme lord of Kandharpura, the best of
cities/^

The Imperial Rastrakutas had their capital at Manyakheta,
modern Malkhed in the Gulbarga District of the former Hydera-
bad State, now in Mysore- But they did not represent them-
selves as the lord of ^Manyakheta, the best of cities". Like the
Rattas of Saundatti, the Imperial Rastrakutas, were sometimes
represented as the lords of the city of Lattalura, Lattalur or
Lattanur, which was claimed to have been the original home
of the family and has been identified with modern Latur in the
Osmanabad District of the present Maharashtra State.® The
representation of Rastrakuta Krsna III, who had his capital at
Manyakheta,^ as the lord of Kandharapura in the Hannikeri
inscription, without reference either to his capital or to the
original home of the Rastrakuta family, is interesting to note.
It appears that Krsna III had a secondary capital at Kandhara-
pura, built by and named after himself or either of his two
predecessors who bore the same name.

Fleet was not inclined to attach any importance to the
mention of Krsna III in the said epigraph as the lord of
Kandharapura. He draws our attention to the fact that it is
an isolated instance and says, ‘^^I know of no place that can be
identified with an ancient Kandharapura or Krsnapura. The
name may possibly have been invented from an imaginary Krsna-
pura derived from some passage similar to that in which the

1. Gf- Bomb. Gaz^,op,ciU, PP* 550 . 55 ^; hid. Ant., VoL XXXIT, pp.
2i6ff. (Nos. 3 - 4 ); JBBRAS^ Vol. X, pp. 240 ff.

2 . Bomb. Gaz*, loc. cit.

3. pp. 384, 387; Ind. Ant.^ Vol. XII p. 22.

4. Bomb. Gazm, op. cit., p. 419.

5. Ibid., p. 384, note 4,

KAKANDiNAGRi AND KANDHARAP0RA 311

Eastern Galukya king Gunaka-Vijayaditya III is said to have
effected the burning of the city of Krsna II {Krma-pura-dahanai
see Ind. AnL^ VoL XX, p. 102, note 26).’’ But, apart from
the fact that the epigraphic passage in question really speaks of
Kiranapura and not of Krsnapura, this attitude appears to be
rather hypercritical. Since the Rattas of Saundatti, w^ho were
used to represent themselves as lords of the city of Lattaiura,
could have represented their ancestor as Mdnyakheta-'pura-var--
adhisvara if they wanted to avoid Lattalura-pura-imr-adhisvaray it
is difficult to understand why they should have preferred to
bring in the name of an imaginary city. In our opinion, the
specific mention of Krsna III as the lord of Kandharapura
scarcely raises any reasonable doubt about the existence of
a city called Kandharapura apparently built by and named
after a Rastrakuta monarch named Krsna (Kandhara) .

Fleet’s attitude seems to have been influenced by the fact
that he had no knowledge of the existence of a city called Kan-
dhara which could be ascribed to the Rastrakuta period. It
therefore appears that he would have modified his opinion on
the subject if he had any knowledge of the town of Kandhar
(also spelt Qandhar and Kandahar), the headquarters of the
Qandharsharif Taluk of the Nander District of the former Hy-
derabad State, now in Maharashtra, and of the remains therein
of numerous sculptures ascribable to the Rastrakuta age. This
place, which appears to be none other than the city of Kandhara
of the Hannikeri inscription, lies about twentyfive miles to the
south of Nanded and a hundred miles to the north of Malkhed.

Sometime ago we published a fragmentary Rastrakuta
inscription engraved on a broken pillar lying in the locality
called Bahadurpur in the suburbs of the town of Kandhar.^ The
inscription is written in the North Indian alphabet of about the
tenth century A.D. The extant parts of the record contain only
the beginning of the Rastrakuta genealogy down to Krsna I
(756-75 A.D. ) and mention a number of shrines that existed at
the place when the inscription was set up about the tenth
century, probably during the reign of Krsna HI. It is interesting
to note that two of the deities mentioned in the inscription are

I* Ep» Ind.^ Voi. XXXVj, pp. 103 flf.

312 GBOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAE tNDlA

Kalapriya and Krsncsvara while the same two gods are also
mentioned in the Karhad plates of Elrsna III.^

One of the deities worshipped at Kandhar about the tenth
century A.D, bore the name Gojjiga-Somanatha. Since Gojjiga 1
is a well-known name of Rastrakuta Govinda IV (929-33 A.D. ),
the deity may have been named after that monarch. If such was
the case^ the city of Kandhara seems to have existed before the
days of Krsna III.

I. Ibid.* Vol, IV, p. 28 1 ,

Chapter XfXVI

KAPIL.AVASTU ANI> TAMRABASTOA

According to the Pali sources. Lord Buddha was born at
the Lumbini“vana near ^K.apilavatthu’ of the S^akyas, and
Lumbini is stated to have been situated between K.apilavatthu
and Levadaha in the Sakya territory.^ The site of the Buddha’s
birth place is determined by the inscribed pillar raised by the
Maurya emperor Asoka (c. 272-232 B.G.), now known as
the R.ummindei pillar standing in the village of Padariya within
the Nepalese Tarai. According to the inscription engraved on
the pillar, Asoka raised it on the occasion of his visit on pil-
grimage, when he was anointed twenty years, to the spot
where the Lord Buddha was born.^ It is well known that Asoka
instituted a regular dharma-ydtrd (pilgrimage) to the Buddhist
holy places and visited Lumbini (the Buddha’s birth place ) and
Sambodhi (Bodhgaya, the place where the Lord obtained
bodhi'j. These are two of the four greatest holy places of the
Buddhists, associated with the career and activities of the
Buddha, the two others being Mrgadava (Sarnath where he
first preached his doctrine) and Kusinagara (KLasia where
he breathed his last), both of which also Asoka may have visit-
ed, though no trace of the evidence to prove this is now avail-
able. There is no doubt that the Sakya capital was situated in
the neighbourhood of the site where Asoka’s Rummindei pillar
now stands ; but its exact location is disputed.

Kapilavatthu is described as a city near the Himalaya
and as having been founded by the sons of Okkaka (Iksvaku )
on the site of the hermitage of the sage Kapila. It is said that,

I. For references, see Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Mames,
s. V. LwTtbints Kapilaoatthu^ Devadaha, Kapila^

52. Sometimes it is wrongly believed that, according to the Asokan
epigraph on the Rummindei pillar, the people in charge of the Lnmbin!-
vana raised it to commemorate A^oka^s visit to the Buddha’s birth place.
Sec Malalasekera, op^ cit,, Vol. II, p. 784; cf. Sircar, Inscriptions of Aloka^
1967 ed., p. 69.

314

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

when the sons of Okkaka went into voluntary exile and were look-
ing for a spot on which they could found a city, they came
upon Kapila in his hermitage in the Himava (Himavat) by
the side of a lake. The sage was versed in the science of
hhumicdla and knew the qualities of sites. He advised the sons
of Okkaka to build a settlement on the site of his hermitage
which, he knew, would become the capital of Jambu-dvipa
and the abode of invincible people.^ It may be that the story
is an echo of the well-known legend of Kapila’ s association
with the sons of king Sagara of the Iksvaku clan as noticed in
the RdmdyanaJ^

In the Sanskrit Buddhist works, the Pali name Kapila-
vatthu is generally quoted as Kapilavastu which is also called
Kapilapura. The city is mentioned as Kapilasya vastu in the
Buddhacarita^ and as Kapil-dkvaya-pura in the Lalitavistara,^ The
Divydvaddnd^^ thrice mentions the city as Kapilavastu. It is
therefore intelligible why Childers’ Dictionary gives the Sanskrit
form of Pali ^Kapilavatthu’ as ‘^Kapilavastu,’ and N. L. Dey’s
Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India and B. C
Law’s Historical Geography of Ancient India adopt the same view.^^
It seems, however, that the correct Sanskrit form of Pali
Kapilavatthu is not Kapilavastu^ but Kapilavastu^ the confusion
being due to the fact that the Sanskrit words vastu and vdstu
both become vatthu in Pali, The Pali word vatthu (neuter
gender), standing for Sanskrit vastu^ is explained as ^^subs-
tance, object, thing, matter; occasion, cause; plot or subject,
story, narrative”, while the meanings of vatthu (masculine
gender), the Pali equivalent of Sanskrit vdstu ^ are quoted as

site, building ground, floor.^” It is quite obvious that
Pali Kapilavatthu can only stand for Sanskrit Kapilavastu be-
cause it was a city built, according to tradition, on Kapila’s
vdstu or the site of his hermitage.

I. Ibtd,^ Vol. I, pp. 514, 516. It may be noticed that the Sakya
capital never attained the status of the capital of Jambu-dvipa or India.

£2. I, 40. 24-30.

3. I- 2.

3a. Ed. Vaidya, pp. 41, 54 and 249.

4. Ed. S. Lefmann, p. 243; cf. pp. 58, 77, 101-02, 113, 123.

4a. See also ‘Kapilavastu’ (Chap. VIII) in Law’s Geographical

Essays y pp. 182-93.

5. See Childers, A Dictionary of the Pali Language^ s, v. vatthu (n.)
Mdmtthu (m.). The word vastu also means * ‘a house, an abode, a dwelling
place” according to Sanskrit lexicons.

KAPILAVASTU AND TAMRARA§TRA

315

The Buddhist scholar Anuruddha, author of the Abhidkam-^
matthasangaha, Mdmarupapariccheda and Paramatthamniccaya in
Pali and probably also of the Anuruddhasataka in Sanskrit^ is
well known to the students of Buddhist literature. He is sup-
posed by scholars to have flourished about the 11 th century
A.D. In the introduction to the Mdmarupapariccheda^ it is stated
that Anuruddha was born at the city of Kaveri within Kahci-
pura in Jambu-dvipa and that he dwelt at times in Tamra-
rastra in Jambu-dvipa and in the Mulasoma-vihara in
Lahka-dvipa or Ceylon.^ In these cases, the name Jambu-
dvipa has been applied to the Indian subcontinent and does
not signify the Puranic island continent of which India was
but a small part.

The colophon of the Paramatthaviniccqya^ recently pub-
lished in the Journ. As. Soc.^ also states that Anuruddha w^as
born at Kaveri-nagara in the rd^ira of Kancipura (also spelt
Kdncivara^ Kdnjivara) and that he was living at the city of
Tahja (also written Rdja and Gaja) in Tamra-rastra. Of
these, the rd^tra or district of Kancipura, Kaficivara or Kahjivara
is no doubt the well-known Gonjeeveram near Madras and the
city of Kaveri may be one of the following localities, viz. (1 )
Kaveripur in the Coimbatore District, lat. 11^ 55', long.

770 47 / . ^ 2 ) Kaveripatam in the Salem District, lat. 12®

25', long. 78® 16' ; and (3) Kaveripak in the North Arcot
District, lat- 12® 54', long. 79® 30'. Out of the above three
places, Kaveripak in the North Arcot District is not far away
from Gonjeeveram and may be the place where Anuruddha
was born.

The name of the place where Anuruddha resided in
Jambu-dvipa or India is given as the city of Tahja, some of the
manuscripts oflTering Rdja or Gaja in place of Tanja as we have
seen. Since there are cases of the less known being superseded
by the well known in literary works® and since Rdja and Gaja
are well known Sanskrit words which Tanja is not, Tahja seems
to be the correct name of the city where Anuruddha lived for

I- JPTS, 1913-14^ PP- 2-3.

i2. JAS^ 4th Series, Vol. VI, 1C64. pp. 49-112.

3. Note how the name of the lesser known river Varhksu (O:' s)
substituted by that of the Smdhu m the Pa^huianna^ IV. 67.

was

316 GEOGRAPHTS^' OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

sometime in Jambu-dvipa. It is possible to suggest that the
said city of Tahja is modern Thanjavur or Tanjore situated on
a branch of the Kaverin about 180 miles to the south-west of
Madras, It is interesting to note that, just as the city of Kaveii
has been located in the rdstra of Kahci, the city of Tahja has
been placed in the rdstra of Tamra, Although Tamra-rastra
as the name of an Indian district is unknown from any other
source, names like Tamraparna and Tamrapami are well
known.

The island of Ceylon is called Tamra-dvipa, Tamraparna
or Tamraparni in Indian literature and Taprobane (also
Palaesimundu -=Parasamudra) by the Greeks. A story of the
Divydvadana seeks to explain the name Sirhhala applied to
Tamra-dvipa^ (Ceylon). A merchant named Siihhala hap-
pened to become the king of Siiiihakalpa in Jambu-dvipa,
which had previously been the capital of king Simhakesarin,
and soon succeeded in freeing Tamra-dvipa from the Raksasis.
Thus Tamra-dvipa, having now become a settlement of king
Simhala, came to be known after him as Sirhhala. The Pali
chronicles of Ceylon, however, give a different story on the
subject.

According to the Mahdvamsa and Dipavamsa^^ Tamra-
parm was the name of a particular area of Ceylon, where
Vijaya and his 700 companions landed. It is said that, after
disembarking from their ship, they sat down at the place with
their hands on the ground and found them coloured with red
dust. Vijaya built his capital there and soon the whole island
(100 or 3QQ yoj anas in extent), originally inhabited by the
Yaksas, became known after it as Tamraparni.^ According to
the chronicles, Vijaya and his companions were called ^the
Siiiihalas® because Vijaya^s father Siihhabahu received the
name Simhala after killing the lion-king (Siinha). The name
Sixhhala-dvipa was given to Tamraparni after the Sirhhalas,

1. Ed. P. E. Vaidya, pp. 452-57*

2 . See Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Karnes^ Vol. I, p. 995 •

3 . The chronicles and the commentaries also apply the names Eanka,
Lahka-dvipa and Lahkatala to Ceylon, Lahkapura or Lahkanagara was
one of the cities of the Yaksas befoie Vijaya's occupation of Lahka-dvipa.
Laiikagiri-parvata was the name of the mountainous central province of
Ceylon.

KAPILAVASTTU AND TAMRARAs^RA 317

Le- Vijaya and his companions, and the Ceylonese people
claim to enjoy the same name as their descendants.

It has to be noticed that Tamra-rastra, in which the
city of Tahja was situated, was a locality in Jambu-dvipa or
India outside Lahka-dvipa or Ceylon. Unfortunately, in
South India, which is near Ceylon/ the only geographical name
associated with the word tdmra seems to be that of the river
Tamraparni, modern Tambaravari, flowing through the
Tirunelveli District into the Gulf of Mannar, a second stream
of the same name flowing westwards through the old Travan-
core State.^ The valleys of these two rivers are. however,
considerably away from the Tanjore region. About the 1 1 th
century A.D. when Anuruddha is supposed to have flourished,
the Tanjore area formed a part of the metropolitan district of
the Cola empire having its capital at the city of Gangaikonda-
colapuram.

There was another place of the name of Tahjai, other-
wise called Tanjakkur, in the district of Mara-nadu near
Madurai.^ It is difficult to be definite whether this Tanjai in
the district of Mara has been represented as Tanja in the
District of Tamra in the PMi work.

1, For Tamrapura in Kambuja and Tamrapattana in Arakan (Burma \
see Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, 19445 PP- 2105; and for
Tamralinga in the Malay Peninsula, see Coedcs, The Indianised States of
Southeast Asia^ p. 39. See also below, pp. 319-20.

2, See K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, The £

:rd cd. p. 674,

Chapter XXVII

IDENTICAI. NAMES OF OIFFERENT LOCALITIES

At the close of Chapter XII above (pp. 2 luff.), we have
referred to several geographical names which are known to be
borne by different localities. It has been pointed out that
some of the identical names are accidental cases while some of
the places were deliberately named after other well-known
localities.^ Attention is drawn here to a large number of cases
of the second type associated with the story of the expansion of
Indian culture and comparable with the European geographi-
cal names applied to places in the New World by the colo-
nists from Europe.

The geographical names in the territories of South-East
Asia, where Indian culture spread, often exhibit Indian influ-
ence very considerably. Since Sanskrit or Pali became the
language of administration and culture in the countries con-
cerned, it is only natural that a large number of places therein
would bear Indian names or would at least have Indian and
indigenous names side by side. In some cases, the former are
merely translated from the latter. The Indian custom of
naming a town after a deity or a ruler or its builder was adopted
in the said countries. In some cases, as in respect of the names
Gamp a and KLambuja the Indian names appear to have
been selected merely because the sound of the indigenous names
suggested them. Such cases and those involving deliberate
introduction of the names of well-known Indian places no doubt
exhibit Indian cultural influence more clearly.

The eagerness of the colonists to import familiar place
names in their land of adoption is quite prominent in Burma
wherein we have a very large number of well-known Indian
geographical names. The name Maurya applied to Mweyin
on the upper course of the Irawadi river is supposed to be the

I. Gf also Sourenir oi th-C licnth Reunion of AIHC Students, Calcutta
University, 1967, p. i: Sircar, Sitnd. Soc^ Adm, Anc, AXed, Ind,^ Vol, I, p,
go and note 2.

IDENTICAL NAMES OF DIFFERENT LOCALITIES

319

origin of Mareura of Ptolemy’s Geography (2nd century A,D. ),
while Sriksetra (Prome) and Hamsavatl (Pegu) are believed
to be older than the 5th or 6th century A.D.^

Some important old Indian names found in Burma are
Aparanta, Avanti, Varanasi, Gampanagara, Dvaravati, Gan-
dhara, Kamboja, Kailasa, Kusumapura, Mithila, Puskara,
Puskaravati, Rajagrha, etc., and the names Sahkasya (Tagaung
on the Upper Irawadi), Utkala (from Rangoon to Pegu) and
Vaisali (modern Vethali in the Akyab District) also fall in the
same category. ^ The name of the well-known river Irawadi
reminds us of the Iravatl (modern Ravi), one of the famous
tributaries of the Indus. The list may of course be multiplied
to any length. The legends of the Buddha and also scenes of
subsequent episodes in the history of Buddhism together with
the lives of the previous Buddhas and of holy men have often
been located in Burma. This kind of deliberate attempt to
create a new India is not noticed in the other Indian colonies.®
Among Sanskrit-Pali names in Burma, mention may also
be made of Golanagara or Golamrttikanagara (modern Ayet-
thema, 20 miles north of Thaton, Gala being supposed to stand
for Gauda ),*^ Kalasapura (to the south-east of Prome near the
mouth of the Sittang),^ Ramapura (Moulmein), Ramanyadesa
(Lower Burma)® and Sri (Bhamo or Tagaung).’' The princi-
palities of Puskaravati, Trihakumbha, Asitahjana and Ramya-
nagara were situated in the region of Rangoon, Ramavati
and Dhanyavati (modern Rakhaingmyu) being situated in
Arakan.® The city of iSriksetra has been located at Hmawza
near Prome. Sudharmapura is modern Thaton and the city
of Arimardanapura is Pagan situated in the land of Tattadesa
and the kingdom of Tamra-dvipa.® King Kyanzittha (1084-
1112 A.D.) of Arimardanapura built the Ananda temple of

1. See R. G. Alajumdar, Hindu Colcmus in the Far East, 1^44^ pp.
215-16.

2. Ihid.^ p. 216,

3. Loc. cit,

4. Ibid-, p. 19=1-

5. Ibid.^ p. 197.

6. Ibtd.^ p. r< 6.

7. Ibid.. 200.

8. See Goedes, The Indiamsed Statts in Southeast Asia. pp. 32^ ; cf p.
156; R. G- Majumdar, np. cit.j p. 202.

9. Gf. R. G. Majumdar, aL, p. 207.

320

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Pagan, which is a masterpiece of Burmese architecture design-
ed on Indian models.^ Jayasirhha (Zeyatheinkha), who died
in 1210 A,D-, built the Mahabodhi temple in imitation of the
famous temple at Bodhgaya in the Gaya District, Bihar.^

The capital of the Candras of Arakan was Vaisall, men-
tioned above; but king Anandacandra is mentioned as the
ruler of Tamrapattana.®

The name of the country of Kambuja (Cambodia) re-
minds us of Kamboja or Kamboja famous in Indian literature,*^
Of the many cities bearing Sanskrit names, in this land, we
may mention Tamrapura, Adhyapura, Dhruvapura, Jyestha-
pura, Vikramapura, Ugrapura, etc.® Of these places, the name
Vikramapura was borne by a city of Eastern India, which was
the capital of the Gandra (10th and 11th centuries A.D.) and
other dynasties and was situated in the present Dacca District
of East Pakistan.® Some of the cities of Kambuja were named
after the kings who founded them, e.g., Sresthapura, Bhava-
pura, Isanapura, etc.*^

Sresthapura, capital of Kambuja, was built by Srestha-
varman (probably the second ruler of the same name). It was
in the vicinity of the Vat Phu Hill near Bassac in Laos, which
bore the Sanskrit name Linga-parvata.® King Isanavarman,
who flourished in the first half of the 7th century A.D., trans-
ferred his capital to Isanapura (named after him) which is
identified with modern Sambor-Prei Kuk.^ iSambhupura
(identified with Sambor on the Mekong), Aninditapura and
Vyadhapura are some of the kingdoms that flourished in
Kambuja in the 8th century A.D.^®

King Jayavarman II of Kambuja, who flourished in
the 9th century A.D., fixed his capital first at Indrapura and
then changed it successively to Kuti, Hariharalaya and Ama-
rendrapura. For some time, he also fixed his abode on the

1. Ibid., p. 212.

2. Ibid., p. 213.

3. Ibid., p. 204.

4. See Sircar, Cosm. Geog. E. Ind., Lit., p. 74.

5. R. G. Majximdar, op. cit,, p. 18 1-

6 . N. G. Majumdar, Ins. Beng., VoL III, pp. 2, 15, 59 . etc.

7. R. G. Majumdar, loc. cit^

8. Ibid,, p. 162.

9. Loc. cit.

ID* Ibid., p* 163,

IDENTICAI. names OF DIFFERENT EOCAEnTES

321

top of the Mahendra-parvata.^ Indrapura was in the north-
eastern part of Kambuja; Kuti is modern Bantay Kdei to
the east of Ankor Thom and Hariharalaya is modern Roluos,
13 miles to the south-east, and Amarendrapura in Battamang,
about 100 miles to the north-west of Ankor Thom. The
Mahendra-parvata is the modern Phnom Kulen hill to the
north-west of Ankor Thom.^ King Yasovarman (acc. 889
A.D. ) built Kambupuri which was later called Yasodharapura.®
The city of Isvarapura (where the temple of Tribhuvanamahes-
vara was built in 976 A.D. ) is modern Banteay Srei, Jayavar-
man V built Jayendranagari (about 978 A.D. ) and at its
centre stood the Hema-giri or Hemasrnga-giri^ which is the
name of Mt. Meru or Sumeru so famous in Indian mythology.

Bhadravarman and other early kings of Campa, ruled
from Campapura over the districts of Amaravati, Vijaya and
Pandurahga.^ Among these places, Campapura and Amara-
vati are names of well-known Indian localities. Gampa or
Campapura was the capital of the ancient Ahga country and is
located in the suburbs of Bhagalpur in Bihar.® The name
Amaravati, which is borne by the mythical capital of the gcKis,
was applied to some Indian cities. Vijayapura, Vijayapuri or
Vijayanagara were often found among the names of Indian
localities.’ Pand^rahga is found in South Indian history as
a personal name.® After the Kambuja occupation, Campa

1. R. C. Majumdar, op.ciL. p. i66,

2 . Loc. cit.

3* Ihid.^ p. 170.

4. Goedes, op, cit,^ p. 117. Meru or Sumeru was conceived as a
mountain of gold, while Hema-gtn means ‘a golden mountain’ and Ht ma-
srriga-girt ‘a mountain with golden peaks’.

5. R. G. Majumdar, op, ctL^ p. loi. Amaravati in Gampa has-
been identified with modern Dong-dfiong where sculptures of the Amara-
vati School (Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh - have been discovered.
Gf. K- A. Nilakanta Sastri, South Indmu Influenn^ in the Far East, pp. 52,
119.

6 . See Sircar, Cosm, Geog, E, Ind, Lit,, p. 31, note 6 ; cf. pp- 152, S 53 -

7. An old city named \'ijaya is Vija^apuii which was the capital of
the Ikwakus (3rd and 4th centuries A. D. 1 in the Kagarjrnikonda \ alley
in the ‘Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh (Sircar, Sthet Insaiptum, p. 235,
note 3)-

8. Gf. Pandaranga m N, Venkataiamanayya’s The Easteui Cdlukyas
of Vengi, p. 347; Pandurahgi in K. T. Pandurangi’s Desc, Cat, Sans,

Vol. I, p. 240, and Panduranga, p. 244.

322

geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

was divided into two parts, the Northern part having its capital
at Vijaya and the Southern at Rajapura (in Panran).^

The streams of Bali are named after celebrated Indian
rivers, such as Gahga, Sindhu, Yamuna, Kaveri, Sarayu and
Narmada, though the Balinese admit that the rivers really be-
long to Kling (the same as ^Kalihga% India)

A locality in Borneo bore the name of Vaprakesvara,®
and, in Java, there were canals named after the Gandrabhaga
(modern Ghenab, a well-known tributary of the Indus) and
Gomati (modern Gomal or Goomti).^

The name of ^Java’ is derived from Sanskrit ^Yava-
dvipa’ (the Barley Island) which is transliterated in Greek
as Tabadios^ in the Geography of Ptolemy.^ The name of
Sumatra is likewise derived from the Sanskrit word samudra^
^ ocean®, and there was, in that country, the city of Srivijaya
(modern Palembang ) which was one of the capitals of the kings
of the Sailendra dynasty. The Indra-giri is located in Eastern
Sumatra.®

The name of the Malay Peninsula is the same as that app-
lied to the Kulaparvata identified with the Travancore hills within
the southernmost part of the Western Ghats.*^ The land called
Tamralihga is located on the eastern coast of the Peninsula.®
A second capital of the Sailendra kings of Indonesia and Mala-
yasia was Kataha (Tamil Kaddram^ modern Kedah near
Penang), the territory around it being known as Kataha-dvipa
in Sanskrit literature.®

The early home of the Thai people in Yunnan, which was
called Nan-chao by the Ghinese, was known in Indochina
as Gandhara, a portion of which was also called Videha-rajya
and its capital was Mithila.^® The famous Pippala cave, the
Bodhi tree, the sacred hill called Grdhrakuta and many other

1. R. G. Majumdar, op. cit. ^ p. 123.

2. Ibtd.y p. 87.

3. Sircar, Select Inscriptions , 1965, p. 499-

4. Ibid.^ pp. 502-03; Cosm. Geog. JE. Ind. Lit.^ pp. 83-84,

5. Gf. Si car, Cosm. Geog, E. Ind. Lit.^ p. 143.

6. See R. G. Majumdar, op. cit., p. 66.

7. Sircar, Cosm. Geog. E, Ind. Lit.^ pp, 55 (note 88), 70, etc.

8. Goed^s, op. cit.^ p. 39.

9. Sircar, Cosm. Geog. E. Ind. Lit.y pp. 5^, 67 (note 114)*

10, R. G. Majumdar, op. cit., p. 225,

IDENTIGAI. NAMES OF DIFFERENT LOCALITIES

323

localities associated with Buddhism were located in the area.^
The Arab author Rashiduddin {13th century) calls the country
Gandhara and says that its people came from India and Ghina.^
Among Thai principalities to the west and south of Yunnan,
the Chinese speak of a Brahmana kingdom of Ta-tsin to the east
of the mountains bordering Manipur and Assam and another
in the east beyond the Chindwin. A group of Thai principa-
lities, united in a loose federation and occupying the region
between the Irawadi and Salween, was called KausambL Some
small States, which extended from the frontier of Yunnan to
those of Cambodia and Thailand (Siam), included Suvarna-
grama, Unmargasila, Yonaka-rastra and Haripunjaya.® Ac-
cording to the chronicles, the first Thai prince to settle to the
south of the Mekong river was Brahman (Prom) who built
Jayaprakara in the Chieng Rai District in the 9th century
A,D>

Many of the above-mentioned geographical names, e.g,,
Gandhara, Videha, Mithila and Kausambi, are famous in the
history of ancient India. The Gandhara country'* had two
capitals one at Taksasila in the Rawalpindi District and the
other at Puskaravati or Puskalavati in the Peshawar District,
both now in West Pakistan.^ Videha was roughly the same as
Tirabhukti (modern Tirhut in North Bihar). It had its
capital at Mithila (modern Janakpur in the Nepalese Tarai).^
Kausambi was the capital of the Vatsas. It has been identified
with Kosam in the Allahabad District of U. P J

The first important Thai kingdom in Siam or Thailand
was that of Sukhodaya (Sukhothai) which was founded by a
chief named Indraditya in the 13th century A.D. King Ram
Khamheng (c. 1280-95 A.D.), who ascended the throne a

few years after Indraditya’s death, annexed Haihsavati (Pegu)
in Lower Burma. Besides the city of Sukhodaya, the kingdom
had a second capital called Sajjanalaya. The kingdom was

1. Ibzd,, p. 226.

2 . Loc, ett,

Loc, cit, Haripiiiljaya comprised modern Lamp! un and Chieng
Mai in Northern Siam (ihid., p.

4, Ibid>y p.226.

5, Sircar, Cowi. Geog. E, Ind, lit., p. 71

6. Ibid.,, p. 78.

7. Ibid.) p. 72.

324

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AKD MEDIEVAL INDIA

therefore called Sajjanalaya-Sukhodaya. The State of Lop-
buri (Lavapurl ) acknowledged the supremacy of Sukhodaya.^
Hiuen-tsang places, to the West of Isanapura, i. e. Cambodia,
the kingdom of Dvaravati, the memory of which is preserved
in the official names of the Siamese capitals Ayutthaya (Dvara-
vati-^rl-Ayudhya or Thawarawadi Sri Ayudhya) founded
in 1350 A.D. and Bangkok founded in 1782 A.D.® The Mons,
according to tradition, regarded Sudharmavati (Thaton at
the mouth of the Sittang river in Burma ) as the centre of their
race. I-tsing places the kingdom of Sriksetra (Prome in
Burma to the west of Dvaravati.

The names of Lavapuri, Dvaravati, Ayudhya and Sri-
ksetra remind us of the Indian cities Lavapura (Lahore),*
Dvaravati or Dvaravati (i.e. Dvaraka, capital of the Yadava-
Satvata-Vrsnis in Kathiawar, Gujarat),® Ayodhya (capital
of the ancient Iksvakus in the Faizabad District of U-P. )® and
Sriksetra or Jagannathaksetra (i.e. Puri in Orissa).'^ It
should, however, be noted that Jagannatha-ksetra or Puri might
not have become famous before I-tsing visited South-East Asia
about the close of the 7th century A.D.

Almost all important geographical names in Ceylon had
their Indian forms. Some of these names are Abhayagiri,
Anuradhapura, Gupta^ala (Guptasala, Buttala), Puhkha-
grama, Jarjaranadi, Dirghavapi Gahgasripura (modern
Gampala), Giritata, Jambudroni, Jayagahga, Jayavardhana-
pura, Jetavanarama, Kalavapi, Kalyani, Kanavapi, Lanka,
Mandalagiri, Rambha-vihara, Nagadvipa, Ratnadvipa,
Ratnapura, Rohana, Sirnhagiri, Sirhhapura, Kusinara-vihara,
Tamraparni, TisyavapI, Tisyamahagrama, Vatagiri, etc.
There are also names like Malaya, Nalanda and Ujjayini which
are borrowed from India.®

1. See JMajumdar, op. czt.^ p. 229; cf. p. 171.

2. Cf, Coedes, T'he Indianised States of Southeast <As?a. p. 76.

3* /W., p. 77.

4. N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary^ 1927, p. 114.

5. Of, Sircar, Cosin. Geog. JB. Ind. Lit. pp, 99, 107.

6. Ibid.^ p. 72.

7. Dey, op. cit.^ p. igi.

Nicholas and S. Paranavitana, A Concise H%stoiy of

Liylon, pp, 359 ff, 5 ^

IDENTIGAI- NAMES OF BIFFERENT t-OCAIXTIES

325

‘Malaya’, which is derived from the Dra vidian word
malaiy ‘a hiH% is the name of one of the Kulaparvatas of
Bharatavarsa or KLumari-dvipa,^ It is the source of the Krta~
mala (modern Vaigai) and Tamraparni (modern Tambara-
vari) and has been identified with the Travancore hills within
the Southern fringe of the Western Ghats/^ The hilly
region in the southern part of Ceylon was called Malaya and
it was treated in later times as a special province (sometimes
including the district of Daksinadesa ) under an official called
Malayaraja (generally the king’s younger son). The name
Malaya is also applied in the Ceylonese chronicles to the
mountainous region of Ramanya or Burma.®

Nalanda was one of the most celebrated Buddhist religious
establishments located at the site of modern Bargaon near
Rajgir (ancient R^agrha or Girivraja) in the Patna District
of Bihar. The same name was applied to a locality in the
Central Province of Ceylon. It is mentioned in the accounts
of the wars of king Parakramabahu

Ujjayini, situated on the Sipra river in West Malwa, is
one of the oldest cities of India. The city is famous for its great
temple of the god Siva Mahakala. It was the capital of the
ancient country and people called Avanti. It is now the head-
quarters of a District of the same name in the Western region
of Madhya Pradesh. The name Ujjayim was applied to a city
of Ceylon which is stated to have been founded by Vijaya’s
minister Acyutagamin.^

1. Sircar, op, p. 70.

2. Jbid,^ pp. 87-88; above, pp. 243 - 44 *

3. Malalasekera, JDPFN:, s. v. Malaya,

4. Ibid,:, s. V. Ndlandd,

3* Ibid,, s- V. Ujkni, For B. C. Law’s confusion the Indian

and Ceylonese Ujjayinis, see above, pp. 211-1 a.

Chapter XXVIII

CARTOGRAPHY

There is no special word in Sanskrit for map’. The word
nakid (from Arabic naqshah^ has been adopted in most modern
Indian languages in this sense, although it also signifies '"a picture,
a plan, a general description, an official report^ In Eastern
India, the word mana^-citra has been coined to indicate the English
word ^map\ The absence of any special Sanskrit word raises the
question whether map-drawing was at all known to the Indians
of old. There is, however, reason to believe that in ancient
India a map or chart was regarded as a citra or dlekhya, i.e.,
'a painting, a picture, a delineation’. It will be seen that the
Sanskrit word citra and its synonyms have practically the same
meaning as the Arabic word naqshah.

That maps were made in ancient India seems to be
quite clear from the evidence of the J\few History of the T^ang
Dynasty'^ which gives an account of the Chinese general Wang
Hiuen-tse’s exploits in India in the year 648 A.E)., as to how
with the help of 1000 Tibetan soldiers and 7000 Nepalese hoi se-
men he defeated and captured Na-fu-ti O-lo-na-shuen, who
had usurped Ghi-lo-i-to’s {y.e. Siladitya-Harsavardhana’s)
throne, in a battle near the town of Cha-puo-ho-lo, and
received the submission of 580 walled towns as well as the offer
of friendship of Ghi-kieu-mo (z.^. Sri-Kumara alias Bhaskara-
varman), king of Eastern India. King Ghi-kieu-mo’s presents
to the Chinese general are stated to have included 30,000 oxen
and horses and considerable war material and it is further said
in this connection that the said king of Kia-mu-lu (z.^. Kama-
rupa) presented to the Chinese emperor some curious articles
including ‘^a map of the country’. This map of Kamarupa
appears to have been prepared by the artists at king Bhaska-
ravarman’s court.

Act I of the Uttar ardmacarita by Bhavabhuti, who flourished
in the eighth century A.D., is styled ^the inspection of the paint-

I, See Journ. Soc,^ Letters, Vol. XIX, 1953, p. 38.

cartography

327

ing\ It is said that a painter {citrakara} painted along a walk
(vzthikd) the experiences {carzta) of the Iksvaku king Rama of
Ayodhya in Dandak-aranya, Kiskindha, Lanka and other
places, according to the instructions of the king’s brother
Laksmana who had accompanied Rama to the forests. These
paintings included some which are said to have depicted parti-
cular regions and may be regarded as a sort of maps- One of
the paintings seems to have been conceived as sho'^ing the
Prasravana hill as ^extending to the heart of Janasthana whose
darkness is deepened by perpetually pouring clouds and whose
caves ring with the flow of the Godavari which is embraced
by the forests at the skirts that are of a uniformly mild blue
colour because of the dense rows of trees. The reference to
forests painted in mild blue colour is interesting. Another
picture of the nature of a map in the same context is intro-
duced by Laksmana to Rama and Sita in the following words;
®^Here is the tract (bhdga) of the Dandaka forest, known as
Citrakuhjavat, to the west of Janasathana, haunted by the
headless giant Danu; this is the site {pada) of the hermitage
of Matanga on the Rsyamuka hill; this again is the emaciated
iSavara woman named 3ramana; this is the celebrated lake
called Pampa/^^

The above references to map-like paintings in an eighth
century Sanskrit drama remind us of the following remarks of
Wilford made about the beginning of the last century: Besides
geographical tracts, the Hindus have also maps of the world both
according to the system of the Pauranics and of the astronomers;
the latter are very common. They have also maps of India and
of particular districts, in which latitudes and longitudes arc
entirely out of question, and they never make use of a scale of
equal parts. The sea shores, rivers and ranges of mountains
are represented by straight lines. The best map of this sort I
ever saw was one of the kingdom of Nepal presented to
Mr. Hastings. It was about four feet long and two and a half
broad, of pasteboard, and the mountains raised about an inch
above the surface, with trees painted all round. The roads
were represented by a red line and the rivers by a blue one. The

1. Ed. S. Ray, Calcutta, 1934, p. 106.

2. Ibtd^, p. 1 2 1.

328

GEOGRAPHY OF AKCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDtA

various ranges were very distinct with the narrow passes through
them: in short, it wanted but a scale. The valley of Nepal
was accurately delineated; but towards the borders of the map
everything was crowded and in confusion/’^ The map of
Nepal noticed by Wilford appears to have been of the same type
as the painting of the Ci trakuhj avat region of Dandak-aranya
conceived by Bhavabhuti. The Indian maps mentioned by
Wilford were probably uninfluenced by foreigners, as other-
wise he would have added a note on the point. Unfortunately,
Wilford does not say anything about the antiquity of the Indian
maps noticed by him. The one of Nepal, of which he has
given some details, could not have been very early.

A good deal of information on early Indian cartography
under Hindu and Muslim inspiration is given by Francesco I.
Pulle in his interesting work in Italian, entitled La Cartograjia
Antica deW India, Parte I.^ In section II of the work® dealing
with Indian sources, there are reproductions of three maps, drawn
by ancient Indian cartographers according to the Puranic ideas
of cosmography and geography- As is well known, the world
was regarded as consisting of seven concentric islands, each one
of them encircled by a sea. The island at the centre was
called Jambu-dvipa, the southern division of which was called
Bharata-varsa, bounded by the Himalayas in the north and
the waters of the sea in the other directions.'^ Two of the three
maps have been reproduced from a manuscript of the Loka-
prakd§a which seems to have been originally composed by the
celebrated Kashmirian polymath Ksemendra in the eleventh
century A.D. but contains a good deal of much later interpola-
tion,® while the third® from a manuscript of another work en-
titled Samgrahani, Figure 2 represents the concentric islands and
the encircling seas, while Figures 8 and 9 are representations of
Jambu-dvipa. The map of Jambu-dvipa published in
Gladwyn’s translation of the Ain^i'-Akbari, Vol. I, was no doubt

1. Asiatic Researches, Vol. VIII, 1805, pp. 270-71; cf. pp. 267-334;

VoL X, pp. I 27 - 57 - . , , .

2. Sludi Itaham Ftlologia Indo-Itamca, Vol. IV, Firenze, igoi.
See also some reproductions from manuscripts at the end of W. Kirfel’s
Die Kosmograpkie der Inder, and the sketches in D. G. Sircar’s Cosmography
and Geography in Early Indian Literature.

3. See op. ciL, pp, 8-44.

4. Figure 2 at p. 16 and Figure 8 at p, 33, Cf. above, pp. i7fF.

5. Cf. Stein, Rdjatar,, trans., Vol. IX, p. 313.

6. Figure 9 at p. 34,

cartography

32§

copied from an original like those found in the manuscripts of
the Lokaprakaia and Samgrakam noticed by Pulle. Similar maps
were found by Wilford in the maunscript of a work entitled
Kfetrasamdsa and were characterised by him as ^several fanciful
delineations of the world". ^ The cosmographical map from
a Tibetan Buddhist source reproduced in Figure 4 at p. 23
of Pulle’s work is also interesting in this connection as its origin
is certainly Indian. It is, however, difficult to say whether other
Tibetan drawings such as the sketch of the Cathedral of Lhasa
published in the Journal oj the Asiatic Societj of Bengal^ Vol.
LXIV, Part i, 1895, Plate XXVI, were similarly of Indian
inspiration.

Figure 5 at p. 25 in Pull<5’s book is a Hindu map of
Jambu-dvipa and its surroundings. This is of a slightly
different kind. In it, the egg-shaped island is surrounded
by nine circles in a row, each representing a graha. In another
row, encircling the grahas^ are given the twelve rdfis each
in an oval. Figure 6 (at p. 29) is the representation of the
nava-khanda or nine subdivisions of India. In Figures 10
(at p. 36 ) and 1 1 (at p. 37 ), Pulle has copied two maps of
Jambu-dvipa from Wilford. These are drawn after two slightly
different cosmographic conceptions of the ancient Indians.
On the authority of Rennel and Santarem,^ PuI16 also speaks
of an old geographical map incised on a copper plate which
was discovered at Monghyr.^

In section VII (pp. 139-58) of Pulle’s work, dealing with
Indian cartography from Persian and Arabic sources, we have
several interesting maps. Figure 35 at p. 142 represents India
according to an old Persian map of the earth. A map, after that
of Ibn Haukal (975 A.D. ), is given in Figure 36 at p. 147
and another from Edrisi (1154 A.D.) in Figure 37 at p. 156.

With reference to the knowledge of map-making among
the people of India, especially the Dravidians of the South, the
following remarks in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (14th ed., Vol.
XIV, pp- 840-41) are also interesting: ‘'"The charts in use by
the medieval navigators of the Indian Ocean — ^Arabs, Persians

I. Asiatic ResearcheSy Vol. VIII, p.

2- Cosmographic et Caritigraphu , Paris, 1852, \’oL I, p. 364.

3. Op» cit.y p. 12.

330

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAE INdIA.

or Dravidas — ^were equal in value^ if not superior^ to the charts
of the Mediterranean- Marco Polo (thirteenth century ) men-
tions such charts; Vasco da Gama (1498) found them in the
hands of his Indian pilots and their nature is fully explained
m the Mohit or Hhe Encyclopaedia of the Sea% compiled from
ancient sources by the Turkish admiral, Sidi ‘^Ali Ben Hosein,
in 1584- These charts are covered with a close network of
lines intersecting each other at right angles- The horizontal
lines are parallels, depending upon the altitude of the Pole Star,
the Calves of the Little Bear and the Barrow of the Great Bear
above the horizon- This altitude was expressed in isbas or
inches, each equivalent to P 42' 50'^ Each isba was divided
into z€Lms or eighths. The intervals between two parallels
thus only amounted to 12' 5T'. These intervals were mistaken
by the Portuguese occasionally for degrees, which accounts
for Malacca, which is in latitude 2' 13" N., being placed

in Cantino’s chart (1502) in latitude 14' S- It may have
been a map of this kind which accounts for Ptolemy’s moderate
^^caggerations (in the second century A.D. ) of the size of
Taprobane (Ceylon). The first meridian, separating a leeward
from a windward region, passed through Ras Klumhari
(Comorin) and was thus nearly identical with the first meri-
dian of the Indian astronomer, which passed through the
sacred city of Ujjain (Oz6n6 of Ptolemy) or the meridian of
Azin of the Arabs. Additional meridians were drawn at inter-
vals of zamSy supposed to be equal to three hours’ sail.”

The suggestion seems to be that the Indians had the
knowledge of making maps as early as the beginning of the
Christian era and that the Arabs and Greeks were indebted
to them for the charts of the Indian Ocean together with the
islands in and the lands bordering on it.

Chafers XXIX

THE BIGHT EBEFHANT-FOHBSTS

The eight cardinal points, with which the JDik-pdlas and
Dig-gajas are associated, are enumerated as — (1 ) piirva (east),
(2) dgneya (south-east), (3) dak^ina (south). {Ac) nairrta (south-
west), (5) paScima (west), (6) vdyava (north-west), (7) ntfara
(north) and (8) aiidna (north-east).^ According to the
Amarakosa^ the following eight JDik-pdlas are the lords of the t*ight
quarters beginning with the eastern — (1 ) Indra, (2) Vahni
(Agni), (3) Pitrpati (Yama), (4) Nairrta, (5) Varuna, (G )
Marut (Vayu), (7) Kubera and (8) Ka (Isana) The Iht of
the eight Dig~gajas in the Amarakosa runs as follows — (1 )
Airavata, (2) Pundarika, (3) Vamana, (4) Kumuda, (5)
Ahjana, (6) Puspadanta, (7) Sarv^abhaunia and (8) Supra-
tika.^ It is, however, well known that the order of the names
has not been maintained in the different lists of the Dig-gajin.
Thus Ksirasvamin, in his well-known commentary on the
Amarakosa stanza referred to above, points out that Bhaguri
enumerated the first five names as Airavata, Pundaiika, Kumuda,
Afijana and Vamana while the Maid gives the first two names
as Airavata and Supra tika.

The Visnudharmottara mentions the names of the JDig-^gajas
in the following order — (1) Airavana (i.e. Airavata), (2)
Padma (i.e. Pundarika), (3) Puspadanta, (4) Vamana, (5)
Supratika, (6) Afijana, (7) Nila (i.e. Sarvabhauma) and
(8) KLumuda, which are stated to have been the vdhanas of
Sakra (Indra) and the other Dik-pdlas respectively.** The varne

1. See Apte’s Ptact. Did,, s. v. nstan —

PuYv^dfintyl dakstrid ca nairrti tathd I

V£^avi c~ottar^ai<dni disa a^ta^zidhdli ,\mrtdk If

2. I.ii.6 —

Jndro Vahmli Pitrpatn^JVairrio Varmio Ale.rut I
Kubera liah patayah puri-ddindm diidm kramfU M

3. I.ii.S —

Airdvata}i Pundarika Vdmanah Kumudo^' fijanuh 1
Puspadantah Sdrrabhaumak SupratlkaS=^ca dig’-gajdb^ II

4. I. 251.II-12 —

Airdvanas=^ tathd Padmah Puspadantas^ca Vdrnanah 1
Supra iiko ^ nj ana KUaik KwYiudai^ta matani^ajdh 1 1
Sakr-ddydndrh dig-'iSdnmh yathd-^aukfyena zdhand{i II

332 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

work also speaks of the four classes of elephants born in the clan
of each one of the eighty viz. (1 ) Bhadra the best, (2) Manda
the medium, (3) Mrga the worst and (4) Sankirna or the
mixed breed.^ The Agni Purdna seems to mention the names
of the eight Dig-gajas as ( 1 ) Kumuda, (2 ) Airavana, (3 )
Padma, (4) Puspadanta, (5) Vamana, (6) Supratika^ (7)
Ahjana and (8) Homa (for Nila or Sarvabhauma ).2

The number of the Dig-'gajas seems to have influenced the
ancient Indian writers’ classification of the Indian elephants
under eight typical groups. Thus the Kautilfya Arthasdstra
speaks of the elephants of eight countries grouped into three
classes — (1) those ofKalihga, Anga, Karusa and Pracya cons-
titute the best class; (II) those of Dasarna and Aparanta are
medium, and (III) those of Surastra and Pancajana are the
worst. It is said in this connection that the strength, speed and
spirit of all the three categories could be enhanced by means of
training.

The location of the above eight countries is well-known.
Kalihga had its ancient capital at Tosali (in the modern
Dhauli region in the Puri District of Orissa); but, from the
close of the 5th to the 12th century A.D., its chief city was
Kalinganagara (modern Mukhalingam near Srikakulam in
Andhra Pradesh). The ancient Ahga country comprised the
present Bhagalpur-Monghyr region of East Bihar and had its
headquarters at Campa near Bhagalpur. Karusa (Karusa or
Karusa ) was known to have been identical with the Shahabad
region of South-West Bihar as late as the 18th century.^

1. I-251. 12-14 —

Caivdro jdtayas—tesdm-^ek-mkasy—anvaye smridh I
Bhadra Alandd AIrgd c~aiva Sankirna ca janddhipa 1 1
Bhadid sresthd bhavet=^tdsdm Manda madhya kanlyasi \

AXrgd jneyd ca bdhulydt Sankirna pdrthivottama i)

Bhadra^ Manda- Alrgdrf,dn~ca iathd vaksydmi laksanam i|

2. The Agni Purdna (291.4) has —

Kumud—Airdvanah Padmah Puspadanto—'' tha Vdmanah 1
Supratlko — ^ njano ndgd astau Homo — ^tha daksinam II

3. II. 2 (Sybiama Sastry’s ed., p. 50) —

Kaling-Anga-gajdh sresthdh Prdcyds = c= eti Karusajdh >
Dasdrnds^c^ Apardntds~ca dvtpdndm madhyamd matdh \\

Saurdstrikdh Pancajands—tesdm pratyaiardh smrtdh 1
sarvesdm karmand mryarh javas~tejas=^ca vaidhaie i\

4. Gf. Amgareja-rdjye varttamdne Karusa-dese in the Masar (Shahabad
District) inscriptioa of Vikrama 1876 or 1819 A.D. (Bhandarkar’s List of
Inscriptions, No. 1068).

THE EIGHT EEEPHANT-FORESTB

333

Pracya or the Eastern Division of ancient India has been
described as the territory lying to the east of the Kalaka-vana
(probably in the Allahabad region ), Prayaga (near Allahabad )
or Varanasi by Brahmanical writers, but of Kajahgala (near
Rajmahal in the Santal Parganas District of Bihar) or Pundra-
vardhana (Mahasthan in the Bogra District of East Pakistan)
by the Buddhist authors,^ Since Ahga and Karusa (which
formed part of the territory to the east of Allahabad and
Varanasi) are separately mentioned, it may be argued that
Pracya of the Arthaiastra in the present case is analogous to the
Buddhist Pracya. But the intention of the author of the Artha->
Mstra may have been to indicate the elephants of Eastern India
generally and of the Anga and Karusa countries in Eastern
India in particular. Dasarna was East Malwa with its capital
at Vidisa (modern Besnagar in the Vidisha District, M.P. )-
Aparanta, in a narrow sense, corresponded to the Thana region
of Maharashtra and had its capital at Surparaka (modern
Sopara). Surastra comprised Southern Kathiawar with its
capital at Girinagara (modern Girnar near Junagarh). Pan€a-‘
jana is the same as Pancanada or the Punjab.^

The stanzas quoted above from the ArthaMstra may be
compared with the following verses of the Aldnasolldsa (1.2*
179-81), the celebrated encyclopaedia by king Somesvara III
(1126-38 A.D.) of Kalyana--

Kdlingam Ve{Ce)di-Kdruia7h DdSdrnam ca vanam varam I
Afigireyam tathd Prdeyam madhyamarfi vanam iy ate W
Apardntarh Pancanadam Saurd^irarh c = adkamam vanam I
evam=^a^fau vandny^dhur — gajandTfi janmanah padam If

It will be seen that the names found in the passage quoted
from the ArthaSdstra are given here wuth slight modification
in a few cases. Thus instead of Karusa, the Mdnasolldsa has
Vedi-Karma or, correctly, Cedi-Karusa,^ i.e. the Cedi and
Karusa countries- In the age of Somesvara III, Cedi was
the name of the Kalacuri kingdom with its capital at Tripuri,

1. Cf. Sircar, Co!> 7 n, Geog^ E. hut, LiL. pp. 16-17.

2. See below. For the location of the eight countries, see Sircar, ojh,
ciL, pp. 25, 77, 76“Bi.

I. The G.O.S. ed. has Vt'di and the Mysore ed. Cedi^

334 GEOGRAPH’iT OF AINTGIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

modern Tewar near Jabalpur. Whoever may have been res-
ponsible for the above modification of the description^ he seems
to have been influenced by a desire to distinguish Karusa from
Pracya. The same desire may have compelled him to change
Anga to Angireya which is otherwise unknown. As we have
seen above, Pracya was generally supposed to have included both
the Karusa and Ahga countries which formed parts of modern
Bihar. Pancanada (the Punjab) is of course the same as Panca-
jana.

What is of considerable importance is that the Mdnasolldsa
classification of elephants is somewhat different from their classi-
fication in the Arthasdstra. According to the former, (I ) the
best elephant forests were Kalihga, Cedi-Kai*usa and Dasarna,
(ii) the medium group comprised the Angireya and Pracya
forests, and (III) the Aparanta, Paficananda and Saurastra
were the worst. Thus, e.g., of the elephants of Dasarna and
Aparanta, placed by the Arthasdstra in the medium class, the
Mdnasolldsa places the first group in class I and the second in
class III. It is difficult to say whether the reclassification, copied
in the Mdnasolldsa^ was a deliberate attempt to improve upon
the earlier authorities on the basis of investigation and personal
experience- Because, as we shall see below, some medieval
writers such as the author of the Mdnasolldsa had, at least, a
vague idea about the location of the Dasarna country.

The Mdnasolldsa (I. 2. 173-74) describes the extent of
the Pracya forest in the following stanza —

Gahgdsdgara-He{Hi')mddri’‘Praydgdnd7fi ca madhyatah \

vanarh Prdcyam^iti proktarh Lohitd{ty-d)bdhi{bkde^i ca

pascime 11

According to the description, the Pracya forest extended from
Gangasagara (at the junction of the Ganga and the sea) in
the south to the Himadri or Himalayas in the north and frorn
Prayaga (near Allahabad) in the West and the Lohitya Sea
(i.e. the lower course of the Brahmaputra which is so mentioned
in the epigraphic records of Assam )^ in the east. It has to be

I. Ep, Ind*y Vol. XXIX p. 151- Tlie conception of tlie Brahmaputra
as a sea seems to be associated with the tradition about the existence, in early
times, of the Eastern Ocean (Bay of Bengal) near Devikotta (modern
Baijgadh in the Dinajpur District, East Pakistan) and with the presence.

THE EIGHT EEEFHANT-FOEESTB

335

noticed that Ahga in East Bihar and Karusa or Karfisa in South-
West Bihar lay in this tract and that is why Anga has here the
doubtful name Angireya and Karusa has been bracketed with
Cedi and both have been placed outside Pracya as we shall
presently see.

The Gedi-Kar-usaka and Angireya forests have been des-
cribed in the Mdnasolldsa in the following stanza (1.2.174-75) —

Tripuryarh KosaUddrau ca Ve{Ce)di-Kdru^akam mnam I

^rfksetram Gauda-Vangdlam=- Angireyarli vanarh smrtam H

Here the Gedi-Karusaka forest is stated to have extended
from Tripurl (Tewar near Jabalpur ) to the mountain range
of the Kosala (South Kosala) country in the Raipur-Bilaspur
region of M.P. and the Sambalpur-Balangir area of Orissa.
Up to the 12th century A.D., South Kosala was under the
Somavaihsis who had originally” their capital at Yay^atinagara
on the upper Mahanadi. It will be seen that the Karusa
country comprising the Shahabad District of Bihar seems to be
excluded from Cedi-Karusaka because Karusa really formed
a part of Pracya.

The Angireya forest is stated to have covered Sriksetra
on one side and Gauda-Vahgala (Gaur-wa-Bangala of the
medieval Muslim authors)^ on the other, Gauda and Vahgala
may of course be located respectively in the western and south-
’eastern areas of undivided Bengal. But it is diiEficult to say
whether, by Sriksetra, the author, like the Chinese pilgrim
Hiuen-tsang, meant Prome in Burma, ^ or Puri in Orissa, w^hich
is now called Sriksetra (i.e. "^the illustrious locality’) because
it is the k^etra of the celebrated god Purusottama-Jagannatha.®

in the central regions of Bengal, of large or lakes like the

Chalan in the Rajshahi District lEast Pakistan*. Wide areas of the
Mynxensing District of East Pakistan, through which the Brahmaputra now
passes, are spoken of as the ‘^sea’ even today. It is a lowlying country which
is under water for six or more months of the >ear.

1. See Gu Ibadan Begam’s Humdyunndma cited in SuppLy No,

XXXIV; also Firishta’s work, Nawalkishore Press, VoL I, p. VoL II,
p. 293. ‘Gauda- Vangala’ is rare in Sanskrit works.

2. Watters, On Tuan Chwanjps Ttaieh in India^ Vol. II, p. i88.

3. J.M. Das, BdA:^(~d&hhd^dr Abhidftdny s.v. See also Dry, DiVf.,

s. V.

336

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

The Kalihga forest is described in the following verse
(1.2. 175-76)—

Vindf^adri'-Citrak utddri^Kalinga-‘Drdvi d-diritam |
vanarh Kdlingakarh ndma samudr-^dvadhi kirtyate |i

This forest comprised the Vindhya range, the Citrakuta hill
and the Kalihga and Dravida countries and extended upto
the sea (i.e. the Indian Ocean). Hiuen-tsang speaks of the
Dravida country as having its capital at Kaheipura (about
50 miles to the west of Madras).^ We know two Citrakutas;
one is modern Cited in the Udaipur Division of Rajasthan and
the other is a holy place in the Banda District of U.P. The
second of the two is probably meant here.

The description (1.2.176-77) of the Dasarnaka forest
runs as follows —

SrTsaile Vedasaile ca Malay'-ddrau tath^aiva ca 1
vanarh Ddidmakarh ndma karindm janma-kdranam 11

The Dasarnaka forest is thus stated to have covered the iSrisaila,
the Vedasaila and the Malaya range. Of these I§ri;Saila is the
well-known hill in the Nallamalur range and is a celebrated
tirtha in the Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh, while the
Malaya range comprised the Travancore hills and the southern
spurs of the Western Ghats. ^ Vedasaila is the Vedaparvata
near Ghingleput in Tamil Nadu. It is famous for the celebra-
ted Paksi- tirtha situated on it.® We have to note that this
Dasarnaka forest is wrongly placed far away from the Dasarna
country in East Malwa. It may be seen that the original
list did not include any elephant forest of South India. The
author of the Mdnasolldsa^ being a Karnatiya, was eager to
locate at least one name, found in the old list, in the South.
Mysore is even now famous for its elephant forests.

The stanza (1.2. 177-78) describing the Aparanta and
Saurastra forests runs as follows :

Sahyddri-‘Bhrgukacch-dntam — Apardnta-vanarh smrtam \

Dvdravatydm^Avantydfh ca Saurd^trarh vanam = ucyate H

1. WatterSj op^ cii.^ p. 226.

2. See above, pp. 60 (^ote 6), 243-44.

3. Dey, op. cit.j, s. v, Bedaparvata for Vedaparvata^

THE EIGHT EEEPHAHT-FORESTS

337

The Aparanta forest extended from the Sahyadri or
Western Ghats up to Bhrgukaccha (modern Broach at the
mouth of the Narmada) while the Saurastra forest extended
from Dvaravati (i.e. Dvaraka in Western Kathiawad ) upto the
Avanti country (West Malwa) which had its capital at
Ujjayim.

The eighth and last forest, called Paficanada, is described
in a verse (1.2.178-79) which runs —

Kdlanjare Kuruksetre Sindhusdgara-safigame I

vanarh Pdncanadam proktarh Himdlaya--krt~dradhi H

This forest was bounded by Kalahjara (Kalifijara oi
Kalifijara on the borders of Kashmir according to the Raja-
tarangmiY west, by Kuruk^etra (Karnal District,

Haryana) in the east, by the Himalaya in the north and the
junction of the Indus and the Sea (Arabian Sea) in the south.

A similiar description of the elephant-forests is also found
in the VisnudharmoUara (L251.22fr. ), the date of which is
regarded as a few centuries earlier than that of the Mdnasolldsa^'^
although the confusion in the text is even more remarkable.
Its account of the gajdndrh van-d^iakam begins with the Pracya
forest in the following stanza (1.251. 22-23) —

Himavat-Praydga-Lauhitya^-Gangd-madhye mahad-vanam I

Prdcyam^^ Airdvanasy^oktam vanarh yatr a matahgajdh 11

It is indicated that the Pracya forest was bounded by the
Himavat (Himalaya) in the north, Prayaga (Allahabad) in
the west, Lauhitya (Brahmaputra) in the east and the Gahga
in the south. These boundaries are the same as those described
in the Mdnasolldsa quoted above. The forest is mentioned

r. Kalhaiia RdjaiarangmU VoL 11 ^ p» 366 i\ II. 1236 and note j .

2. The Vi^nudhannuttara is assigned to a date between 400 and 500 A.D.
by some and between 628 and 1000 A.D. by others (cf. Hazra, Siud^

VoL I, p. 212; Winternitz, Hisi, lnd» \"oL I, p. 380;. But mistakes

like Kdiesa and M dr gar ^ aka (cf. below) seem to suggest that its present text
may be later than the present text of the AldnasoUdsa, though it knew the
location of Dasarna about which the ManasoUdsa had a confused idea.

3. This foot of the stanza has one syllable in excess. The verse is
preceded by the line — atafj paxuvi pravaks;^'dvii gajdndm te lan-d^takam.

338 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

here as the abode of [the elephants of the class of] the Dig-gaja
Airavana ( Airavata ) .

The Karusa forest is described in another stanza^ as the
abode of [the elephants of the class of] the Dig-gaja Padma or
Pundarika and as bounded by the Unmatta-Gahgas (probably
some tributaries of the Ganges), Tripuri (near Jabalpur),
Dasarna (East Malwa) and the Mekala (the Amarkantak and
Maikal ranges) apparently in the north, south, west and
east respectively. These boundaries appear to include the Cedi
country, but not Karusa in the Shahabad region of Bihar.

The Dasarnaka forest is described as the abode of [the
elephants of the class of] the Dig--gaja Naga (i.e. Puspadanta).
It was bounded by the Bilvasaila (cannot be identified), the
Vetravati (modern Betwa running between Besnagar and
Bhilsa), the Dasarnagiri (apparently in East Malwa) and the
Mekala (the Amarkantak and Maikal ranges).^ Bilvasaila
reminds us of the Sun-god Bhayillasvamia worshipped at Bhilsa
(recently named Vidisha) in the early medieval period.®

The name Margareyaka-vana is applied to what is
called Angireya-vana in the Mdnasolldsay the name being modi-
fied from Anga of the Arthasdstra list. It was the abode of [the
elephants of the class of] the Dig-gaja Vamana. It is describ-
ed as bounded by the Pariyatraka (the Western Vindhyas in-
cluding the Aravalli ), Vaidesy a (Vaidisa or Vidisa, modern
Besnagar), the Narmada river, and Brahmavardhana which
cannot be identified with precision.^ These appear to have
been the boundaries respectively in the west, east, south and
north. We are not sure whether Brahmavardhana can be
identified with Brahma- tirtha or the Puskara lake*^

What the Mdnasolldsa calls the Kalinga forest is men-

1. 1. 251. 24-25 —

Unmattagangas^Tripun DaJdrnarh Mekalds=tathd )
tesdm madhye Karus-dkhyam vanarh Padmasya kzrtitam 1(

2. 1.251.26-27 —

Bilvasailarh Vetravati Dasdrnarh ca mahdgirim |
tesdrh Dasdrnakarh madhye Puspadantasya kdnanam |1

3. See Ep. Ind., Vol. XXX, pp. 210 ff.

4. 1.251.28-29 —

Pariyatraka- Vaideiya-Narmadd-Brahmavardhanam |

Vdmanaya vanam madhye tesdrh vai Mdrgareyakam ,

Dcy, op^ cit.^ s. V.

5 -

THE EIGHT ELEPHANT-FORESTS

339

tioued in the Vimudharmottaray no doubt wrongly, as Kale^a-
It is stated to have been the abode of [the elephants of the
class of] the Dig-gaja Supratika and was bounded by the
Vindhya, the Sahya (Western Ghats), Utkala (Coastal Orissa)
and the Daksina-samudra (Indian Ocean ).^ These boun-
daries apparently relate to the north, west, east and south*

The Aparantaka forest is described as the abode of [the
elephants of the class of] the Dig-gaja Ahjana and as bounded
by Sevadesa (possibly a mistake for Sevanadefa, i.e* modem
Khandesh), the samudra (apparently the Arabian Sea),
Premahara (possibly the same as Prehara (i.e. either the
modern Ghataprabha or the Malaprabha )^ and the Narmada,
no doubt respectively in the east, west, south and north.®

The Saurastra forest is stated to have been the abode of
[the elephants of the class of] the Dig’-goja mentioned as Nila
(i.e. Sarvabhauma) and to have been bounded by Kusasthali
(i.e. Dvaraka or Dvaravati in Kathiawar), Avanti (West
Malwa), the Arbuda (Mt. Abu in the Sirohi District,
Rajasthan) and the Narmada.*

The Pancanada or Punjab forest was the abode of [the
elephants of the class of] the Dig^-gaja Kumuda and was boun-
ded by the Himalaya (north), the Kalika (south ?), the Sindhu
or Indus (west) and Kurujahgala (east).^ A.B.L* Awasthi
suggests the identification of Kalika with Kalka near Simla;®
but it seems to be a river far to the south. The Kalika may
by the Kali Sindh, a tributory of the GhambaL Kurujangala
was really a part of the Kuru country and lay in the Eastern

1. II. S51. 30-31 —

Vindhya-Safy^-^Otkalandm ca dak$inasy==^ar^avaxpa ca I
vanam ca madhye Kdledarh Supratikasya kirtitam tl

2. Cf. Select Inscriptions^ 1965 ed., p. 477, note i.

3. I-251.32-33 —

Seuddesal^ sawudrai^ca Fremaharam ca Narmada {

te^dm tuadhye^^ njan-dkhyasya vanarh khalv=^ApaTantakam (I

4. I.25n34“35—

Kuiasthali ntahipula Avanty-Arbuda^Narmaddf^ I
tesdm madly e tu Saurd^t^am varuim Ntla^a kirtitam 1 i

5. 1.251.36-37—

Himavat-Kdlikd-Sindhu-Kurujangalam^eia ca j
te§dm Fancanadarh madhye Kwnudasya mahad-vanam |l

6. Frdctn Bharat kd Bhaugolik Smrup^ p- i 44 -

340

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Punjab though the name was sometimes also applied to the
country of the Klurus,^ which had its chief cities at Hastinapura
(Meerut District, U.P. ) and Indraprastha (near Delhi).

The Vdyu and Brahmdnda Ptirdnas have a section dealing
with four Dig-gajas and their respective forests. It is well known
that originally only four Dik-pdlas^ viz. (1) Indra (east), (2)
Kubera (north), (3) Yama (south) and (4) Varuna (west),
were recognised and that the number was later raised to
eight by the inclusion of the protectors of the south-east, south-
west, north-east and north-west.^ There may have been a
similar original conception in respect of the Dig-gajas as well.
Thus the said Puranic section mentions only — (1) Ahjana
(Sahkirna, .iveta)^ the vdhana of Yama (south), (2)

Supratika (Bhadra, harita')^ the vdhana of Varuna (west),
(3) Padma (Pundarika — Manda, gaura)^ tYic vdhana oi
(north), and (4) (Vamana) (Mrga, sydma)^ the vdhana of
Agni (south-east).^ These four are called dig-gajas and are
represented as the sons of Airavata who is the idhana of Indra,
the guardian of the east. It is interesting to note that the
above list of four dig-gajas includes the elephant of the south-
east in place of the one guarding the east.

In this account, the Pracya forest, which was the abode
of [elephants of the class of] the Dig-gaja Ahjana, extended
from the K.ausiki (i.e- the Kosi river) to the sea and lay
beyond the Gahga (probably to its north and east).'* The

1. Dey. op, cit,^ s. v.

2. See Sircar, Xhe Successors of the Sdtavdhanasy p. 196. Sometimes we
have Agni or Soma in place of Kubera {fThe Bhakti Culty etc., ed. Sircar, p.
43) , while the Buddhists mention Kubera along with Dhrtarastra of the
east, Virudhaka of the south and Virupaksa of the west (Sircar, Cosui*
Geog., etc., p. 49, note).

3. See VdvUy II,8.207ff. —

Tasya putro^'' njanas=c^aiva Sup7 atiko^^ tha Vdmanah I
Padmas^c = at va caturtho = ’*bh ud == dhastim c = Abhramus ~ laid
JDig-gajdms ~ tarns =ca catvdrah svet=djanayat=dsugdn 1
Bhadram Mrgah^ca Mandarin ca Sahkirriam caiurah sutdn U
Sanklrno^'^py^Anjanoyas^tu upardhyo Tamasya tu I
Bhadro yah Supratikas ^ iu haritah sa hy=Apdmpateh H
Padmo Aiandas^tu yo gauro dvipo hy^Ailamlasya sah I
Mrgah sydmas^tuyo hasti (Vdmana) upavdhyah sa Pamkaih U

4. (a) Fdyuy II. 8.232 —

Kausik-ddydh samudrdt^tu Gangdyds=^tad-anantaram \
Anjanasy^Aikamulasya Pracyan^ndga-vanan^tu tat 11

THE EIGHT ELEPHANT-FORESTS 341

Kos! now joins the Ganges in Bihar, though it is suppo^d to
have flowed through North Bengal in the early period.^

The forest of [elephants of the class of] the Dig-gaja
Supratika is stated to have been situated between the Gahga
in the north and the Vindhya in the south and to have extended
from Gahgodbheda to the Karusa country,^ Since, however,
Gahgodbheda, the place where the Gahga rises, lies in the
Himalayas, it could hardly have been a locality associated with
the territory between the Gahga and the Vindhyas. The text
therefore appears to be erroneous.

The language of the description of Vamana’s forest is also
defective. It is probably stated to have been situated between
Utkala (in Coastal Orissa) and the Cedi country (in the
Jabalpeur region}.^

The forest of [elephants of the class of] the Dig-gaja
Padma lay to the west of the sea and had the Lauhitya (Brahma-
Putra) in its west; that is to say, it was situated between the
sea in the east and the Brahmaputra in the w'est.^ The area
seems to have comprised the south-eastern regions of Bengal
and the contiguous areas of Burma.

It appears that the association of a particular Dtg^gaja
with a particular forest was influenced by the different notions

(b) Brahrmrida^ III. 7 - 355 - 56 —

Kausikyd hy^d samudrdt^tu Gangdydi^ca yad^uttaram |
An)anasy=Aikamulasya vtjneyam gahanam iu tat )(

1. Gf, Sircar, Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Liter atwre,
p. 84; also above, p. 50, note 4.

2. (a) Vdyu. II. 8. 283 —

Uttar d {rath) tasya Vindhyasya Gangayd dak§i^am ca yat I
Gangodbheddt Karu^ebhyap Supratikasya tad^ianam H
(b) Brahmdnda, III. 7-356-57 —

tettaram c=aiva Vindhyasya Gangayd daksinum ca yat |

Gangodbhede sakerubhyah Supraiikasyi pattanom U

3* (a) Vdyu^ II. 8. 234 —

Aparen~Otkalds=c~aiva hy~d Ve{Ct jdibhyai==^ca panca {let jmam t
Ekahhut-dtmano—^sy^ailad^Vdmanasya lamm |

(b) Brahmdrida^ III. 7.357-58-—

Aparen= Otkalam c=aiva Kdveri {hy=^d Cedi )bkyas=^ca pasetmam §
Ekasiik^dtmajasy^aitad^Vdrnanasya lanam smrtam 11

4. (a) Vdyu, 11.8.235—

Aparena tu Lauhityam=d sindkok pascimena iu I

Tama {Padma }sy = aitad —vanam proktam = anuparuatam^eia tat U

(b) Brahmarida^ 111 - 7 - 356-59 —

Aparena iu Lauhityam=^d jundkoh pascimena tu |
Padmasy^aitad^vanam proktam=anupa'iiaimn=^eia tat ||

342

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANB MEDIEVAL INDIA

of the early medieval writers regarding the quarter represented
by a Dig-gaja and that this fact led to the discrepancy among
their views.

We have consulted, in this connection, a few other medie-
val works without getting any addition to our knowledge of the
subject. These include the Mdtangalild^ Trivandrum Sanskrit
Series, 1910 -(cf. JBORS^ Vol. X, p. 322), the Gajasdstra of
Palakapya-muni, edited by K. S. Subrahmanya Sastri and
S. Gopalan, T.M.S.S.M. Library, Tanjore, 1958, (pp.
32-35) and the Apardjitaprcchd^ edited by P. A, Mankad
(G.O.S., No. 115, Chap. 79, pp. 199-200). Indeed, they
appear to make the confusion worse confounded.

INDEX

Abdul Qadir, chief of KalpI 306
Aberia, cotmtry^ Greek form of Abhira.

same as Abiria g8
Abhapuri, locality 307
Abhayagiri, locality 3124
Abhidhanvnatthasangaha, work 315
Abhidhdiactntdmanty work 26^ 132-33
2 1 on, 304n

Abhimanyu, Kashmirian king 292
Abhimanyu, Rd^lrakuta king 187
Abidnava- Varanasi -kanaka city 179
Abhinava-Yayatinagara, city 179
Abhira, mistake for Abhira 3on

people 3on, sgn, 4on, 46 and n,
69 and n, 78, 98, 271; country 32,
83, 98

Abhra, people 36n

Abika, people 37n

Abiravan, locS,ity 32

Abiria, same as Aberia, 225

Ablur inscription of Vijjala 132

Abu, mountain 209, 263, 339

Abul Fazl, author 103, 132, 140, 299-

300

Abu Zayd, author 142
Acala, river 6in
Accutagami, officer 211*- 12
Acesines, same as Asikni or Ghenab 49n
Achaemenes, progenitor of the Achae -
menidae 215

AchaemOnians, Achaemenidae,
cendants q/' Achaemenes, cfynas^ i99a

Acyutagamin, officer 325
Ad-Badri, locality 49u
Adeisathron, mountain range 59n
Adhakya, people 39n
Adh-Gaur, section of the Gauda
Brahmana i29n

adhisthan-ddhikarana^ ^offce of the i
akministration' 275
Adhraraka, people 36n
Adhyapura, city 320
Adi-Bhanja, royal family i76n
Adipurd(ia, work 22 on
Aditya, class of gods 251
Adriha, people 33n
Adrija, river 540
dctyay ^originaV 281
Afghan, people 35n
Afghanistan 3, 32, 35n, 101-03, 195,
i97-99» 203, 205, 230, 236, 30in;
Eastern 195; Northern 198, 203;

Southern 198-99, 205, 289, 293 andpx
AfHca, continent 25 ; North-Eastern 25
Agalassoi, people 34n
Agamavagisa, title of Krsnananda 183
egn^a, ^south-east* 331 and n
Agni 331, 340 and^n
Agni Pur ana 170, 24n, 26, 500, 63 and
IX, 64n, 243, 282, 283 332 and n
Agni-sara!b, holy pond 278
Agnisarab-kunda, holy pool 278
Agnisatya-pada, holy place 277
Agrawala, V.S. igsn, 238, 263n
Ahicchatra, city 99, 201
AJhlndravara, rrythical region 23
Ahirwas, fort 98
Ahmadabad Oistrict 193
Ahmadabad-Bhir area 193
Ahopap, locality 50n
Ahuka, people 36n

Aihole inscription 165, 206-07, 238
Aikira, mistake for Airaka 84n
^Atn-i-Akbari, work 34n, 103, I04n,

132a, 154, 299, 300 and n, 328
Air^a, country 78, 84, 103, 202
Airavana, nythical elephant 331 and n,
332 and n, 337 - 3 ^

Airavata, trythical elephant 21, 265,
331 and n, 338, 340
Airavati, same as Iravati 49n
aisdna, ^north-east* 33 in
Ajanta, locality 186, i88
Aibika, peqpU 390
Aiyangar, Rangaswami 2i3n
Ajay, river 217
Ajina, mythical region 23
Ajinavara, nythical region 23
jiVjinavaravabhasa, mythical region 23
Ajmer, locality 14, 240, 256, 263
Akara, country 14, 430, 98, 205-06,
228, 271-73

Akara-Das^jja region 203-06
Akbar 141 and n, 299
Akbarnagar 141
Akbarndma, work 300
Akhaemenes, same as Achaemenes 171
Akhaemenid, same Achaemerdd 171
Akhaemenidae, same as Achaemenidae
171

Akola, locality 256; District 186, 188

Aksaya-va^a, holy tree 284

Akyab District 142, 319

Alaka, people 4on

A}aka, mistake for Mujaka 27*2

344

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Aiakanda, Alakandra ^ Alakandaka,
Alakandraka, locality 233-34
Aiampur, locality 9611
Alaad^ locality 258
Alaade, territory 257-58
Alasa^ people 3511

Aiasanda, city 198 and n, 230 and
n, 231-33, 235; diipa 232-34
Alasanda-Nikumba 232
‘Alauddin Husain Shah, Sultan of
Bengal i8in

Al-BirCmi 26, 28-29, 48n, 51 n,

65n, 6 gn, yon, yin, 72n, 74n, 89,
ii2n, 126, i98n, 220, 241 and n,
290-92, 306-07

Al-Dharma, Al-Dharmi king 143
dlekhya, ^painting 326
Alexander, Greek king 10 r, 198-99,
205, 225n, 230-31, 289; his haien
23 in

Alexandria, cily ig8, 230-32, 233 and
n, 234, 289

Alexandria-among- the- Arachosians ,
same as modem Kandahar 230-31
Alexandria-nnder-the Caucasus, city
230-31

Ali Ben Hosein, 'Turkish Admiral 330
Alibhadra, people 35n
ahsamdaga, ahsamdaya, variety of ^ckick
pea* 234

al-Kandhar, country, Arabic form of
Gandhara 52n, 290
Allahabad, city 2, 31, 49n, 55n, 213-
^2543 3033 307^ 333-34? 337;

District 323; pillar inscription 2,
156, 27on, 298; region 31, yon,
333

Allan 36n

al-Malibah, san<,e as Malava 209
al-Mansura, locality 52n
Almora, locality 5on
Al-Ruhml, same as AI-Dharma 143
Altekar, A. S. 305n, sogn
Aluka, people 165
Alupa, people 4on
ALwar, locality 31, 112, 241-42, 261
Alwar-Bharatpur-Jaipur region 100,
112

Amala. territory 259
Amala-vi'aya, district 260
Amara, lexicographer 267 and n, 268
Amaraga, wrong reading 84n
Amarakantaka, see Amarkantak 89,
116

Amarako^a, work 331
Amarapura, same as Amaravati 244
Amarasahkara 222 and n
Amaravati, locality 244; district 188,
321 and n; school 32 in
Amaredrapura, city 320-21

Amarkantak, hills 43n, 57n, 338
Ambala, city 33n; District 49n,
region 201-02. 204

Ambastha, people 47 and n
Ambasthapuri, locality 252-53
Ambika, goddess 100
Amdhala, country 259
Amdhra, country 82
Amgaon, locality 188, 304
Amikata, people 4on
Amoghavarsa, Rdstrakuta king 132,
146

Amorarhgam, wrong reading 84n
’Amr ibn Layth, Arab General 292
Amrtadeva, nobleman 276, 281
Amu Darya, river 24, 57n, 66n
Amurtarayas, Jather of Gaya 284
Anandacandra, king of Tamrapa^tana
„ 320

Ananda dynasty 309
Anandapura, locality 207
Ananda temple. Pagan 319
Anangabhima III, Eastern Gahga king
179-80

Anangabhima, Anahkabhlma Sanskrit
form> of Dravidian name 170
Ananta hill 92
Anantapura, locality 92
Anantapur-Guddappa area 99
Anantapur region 247
Ananta-saila, hill 81, 92
Anantasayana, locality 92
Anantasena-ksetra, locality 92
Ajaantavarman Godagahga, Eastern
Gahga king, 91, 169, 179-80
Anarta, Anarta, Anartaka, people and
country 42 and n, 27 in, 273
Andersen-Smith, author:^ 272
Andhaka, people 31, 78
andha-paramp ard-ny dya 185

Andha, mistake for Andhra 4on
Andhra, people and country i and n, 2,
27, 20^ sSn, 40 and n, 47n, 64n,
68 and n, 94-95, i28n, 168, 186,
201, 247, 259; country 127, 185

Andhr-ddkipa, epithet in
Andhr’-ddhipati, epithet 1 68
Ajcidhrapatha, country 247
Andhra Pradesh 4on, 6 in, 95n, 115,
167-69, 175, 189, 262n, 285, 309,
32in, 332, 336
Andhrapura, locality 137
Andhrava, wrong reading 36n
Andhravaka, wrong reading 36n, 201

Andhri alphabet 127
Andras, town 147

Ahga, country and people i and n, 2,
7> 30, 3611, 70 and n, 78 and n, 81,
89-90, 165-66, 201, 219 and n, 22011
254? 321, 332 and n, 333 - 33 ? 33^5

INDEX

345

city 90; people 36 and n, 168, 175,

201, 255n

Angalaukika, Angalokika, people 34
and n

Anga-lipi, alphabet 127
Angaloka, country ^4:^3 67 and n
Angalokya, people 56n
Angeya, people 36n, 37 and n
Angireya, /oreit 333-35, 338
AhguHaranik^ay text 197, 287, 288n
Anibhadra, people 35 and n
Anikata, people 4on
Aninditapura. town 320
Aniyankabhima, Sanskrit form of
Dratidian name 170
Ajiialipriya 264

Ajnana, mvthical elephant 331 and n,
332n, 339, 340 and n

Anjana, mythical territory 23
Anjanavara, mythical territory 23
Ankor Thom, locality 321
Ahkottakaj territory 256-257
Arnica, people 44n
Anna-malai, hill 244
Antahsila, river 58 and n
Anta^sira, river 58n
Antahiliva, rioer 58n
Antargira, Antargiri, people 36 and n
Antargiri, hill 36n
Antargirya, people 36n
Antar-Narmada, people 4 1 n
antariksa^ ^sky^ 8
Antarvedi tract 303
Antebole, mouth of the Ganges 215
Antialkidas, Greek king 266
Anu 20on

Anupa, land and people 44 and n,
272-73

Anuradhapnra, city 324
Anuradetha, author 315, 317
Anuruddhasataka, work 315
Apabhrarhsa, dialect 127, 139
Apaga, people 35n
Apaga, river 48n
ApagJ, river ^ 59 n

Aparagandhika, mythical territory 2on
Apara-Gaud-adi-lipi, alpha et 127
Apara-Godana, Apara-Goyana,
mythical territory gn, 19, 2on
Apara-jalaniddhi, ^western ocean* iin
Apardjitaprcchd^ work 342
Apara-Malava, "^West Malwa'* 113
Apara-Mdlavyabi ^West Malwa ladies*
98n

Aparamta, same as Aparanta 272
Aparanta, country 29, 32, 40, 4in,
805 83n, 189, 2i3n, 225-26, 227

and n, 228, 229 and n, 234, 273,

274n, 319, 332 and n, 333-34»
33^; 337, 339; people 32, 40

and n, 42 and n, 46 and n
Aparantaka, people 33 gn
Aparantaka same as Aparanta 274,
339

Aparantika, people of Aparanta 225
Aparantya, people of Aparanta 46n
Aparita, people 32
Apasa, people 35n
Apasna, people 470
Apatha, people 45n, 72n
Aphsad inscription i6in
Apie, V. S. i28n, 33 in
Arab, people 34n, i35n, 142, 1440,
145-47. 239-41; 293, 330; author
323; geographers 242; governor 209
ALrabian Sea 8-10, 13-14, 54n, 57n,
94, 109, 1 16, 130, 224 236, 337,
339

Arabic 155, 307, 329; text 241; word
I3gn; writers 142, 144, 148, 292
Arachosian, people of Arachosia 198,
230-31? 289

Arakan, ternary I35n, 142, 3 1711,

319-20; pirates 299
Arama, Rama, people 47n
Aramaic, language and script 199, 203,
231

Ajranya, people sgn
Aratta people^ 4 ^ 5 ^? 219 and n, 238-39
Aravalli, mountain range 54n, 338
Aravidu dynasty 76
Arbuda, mountain 41 n, 209, 263, 339
and n; people 42 and n, 46 and n
Arcot, locality 247n; District {Mortk)
96, 315; South 21 1, 297n
Ardhahara, mythical territory 23
Ardhaharavara, mythical territory 23
Ardhaharavaravabhasa, mythical territory

Ardhanagari alphabet 127

Argyre, locality 23

Ariaka, Ariake, territory 225-27, 229

Arimardanapura, ctp 319

Arirdjadanujamddhava, title 157

Aristapura, city 119

Arjxma Kartavirya, king 4411

Aijxma, Pandava hero 164

Arkalihga, people 31

Aror, city 52n

Arrian, author 6

Arsah-i-Bangala, territoiy 158

Arsyakulya, people 64n

Arthapa, people 31

Arthasdstra 123, 233-34, 333 - 34 ? 33^

Arun, river 280

Arana, rrythical territory 23

Arunabhasa, mythical territory 123

Arunavara, mythical territory 23

Aninavaravabhasa, nythical territory

3i6

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT ANIi MEDIEVAL INdIA

Arun-kosi, rij^er 279
Arunoda, lake i8n, 23
Arupa, people 4411
Axyagalava, people 3711
Arya-Mahameghavahana dynasty 167
AiyamanjttsrimuLakalpa^ work 2obn
Arya, Aryan 48n, 219, 268
Aryanism 2i3n

Aryavarta 14-15. 29, 85, 106, ii2n,
1 19, 128-30, 2i3n, 2i4n, 219,

sGgiiy 271

Asaka, saf?2e as Asmika 272-73
Asamkhyata, mistake for Saryata 4411
Asatapaladeva, king 290
Ashrafpur copper-plate grant 149
Asia 8, 253 29; Minor 25; South East
164, 318, 324; Western 103, 114
Asiatic Society, Calcutta 75, i05n
Asika, same as i^.sika, country 272
Asikni, same as' Gandrabhaga, river
49n, 65n

Asinila, people 4 in
Asitanjana, kingdom 319
Asmaka, land and people 39 and n,
4on, 188-90, 193,2550, 273 andn,
274 and n

Asmaka, variant of Asmaka 390
Asoka, Maury a emperor^ 3, 6, 330, 91,
i6on, 167, 196, 198, 214, 219, 231,
286, 312, 3131^; 3 > 197? ^ 99 ^

203, 313x1; empire 3
Assaka, Pali-Prakrit form of Asmaka
264, 272-73

Assalayanasutta^ text 196
Assam 3, 7, 36, 37a, 460, 580, 93,
97n, 104, 109, III, 116-17, 126,
143, 146 152, 160 and n, 161-
65, 182, 214, 298, 323, 334
Assamese 127-28
astadasadmpd medini 240
A$tddl^dyl of Panini 1 19
Asta, mythical mountain iin, i2n, 236
Asutosh Museum 250
Asvaghosa, author 285
Asvakuta, people 3 in
Asvamedha, sacrifice 2, 8, 22on, 284
Asvamukha, people 74 and n, 257
Asvanadi, river 54n
Asvapati, king 115
Asvap ati-Gaj ap ati-Narapati-rdJa-tray -
dmipati^ royal title 115
Asvarathanadi, river 54n
Atavya, people 39 and n
Atharva, people 31
Atharvaveda 287
Athava, people 31
Athenian, people of Athens 216
Athens, city 216
Atisindhu, country 261
Atlantic ocean 241

Atraya, people 350
Atrcya, people 350
Atri, sage 2840
Attika, territory 216
Attock, locality 330, 510, 520, 290
Atyutpalavati, river 6on
Audra, country *67, 175 and n
Audriya-visaya, territory 167, 183
Aulikara, royal family 207-08
Aundra, people 43n
Aupadha, people 35 and n
Aurangabad, locality 193; District
39n, 4on, iii, 188-89, 227, 2730

Aurangzib, Moghul emperor 76, 134
Aurasa, people 35 and n, 68, 69n
Aurnavabha, a uthor 287
Ausadha, people 35n
Ausinara, mythical king 252-53
Avagana, people 35 and n
Avanta, people 31,44
Avantaka, 78, 2710
Avanti, country and people 14, 31, 440,
54 and n, g 7n, 82, 83 and n, 86, 96,
97 and n, 98 and n, 99n, 113, 189,
205-07, 209, 210 and n, 211-12,
2190, 228, 254, 255n, 264, 273 282,
^ 3x9. 325 i 336-37^ 339
Avantika, ^girl of AvantV 207
Avantlsundarlkathd^ work 229n
Avantivarman, king 300
Avantya, people 420, 78
Avarni, river 54n
Avartaka, wrong text 2710
Avatara, Visnu^s incarnation 222
Avatoda, river 64n
Avidheya, king 187, 194
Awasthi, A.B.L. 2590, 339
dydgapaUi tablet for worship 308
Ayetthema, locality 319
Ayodhya, city 31, 49n, 106, 254, 276,
282-83, 3245 327; region 27on
Ayudhya, locality 324
qyuktaka, ^ojjicer^ 275
A>uttliaya, locality 324
Azin, same as Ujjayini 330

Babla, river 62n
Babriavad, locality 1 1 4n
Bactria, country 34n, loi, 198, 200,

230

Bactriana, country 198
Badakhshan, country 34n, 195
Badami, same as Vatapi, city 15,
145 and n, 165, 19 in, 206
Badari, B^arikasrama holy place 9,
236, 277

Badari narayana, holy place 277
Badira family 246

INDEX

547

Ba^-kamta, locality 149
Bagchi, P.G. 3511, 7711, 78n> io6n,
non, 18211, 219
Bagdad, city 241
Baghaura inscription if>6
Bagmati, rtver 106
Bahadurpur, locality 31 1
Baiiika, people 36 and n
Bahirgira, Bahirgiri, people 36 and n
Bahirgiri, hill 36n, 238
Baiilika, people and country loi, 198,
203, 236-37, 262; country 84, 202-
03s 205

Bahxnanabad, locality 260
Bahraicii District 254, 297
Bahroj, same as Broach, port 52n
Bahubhadra, people sgn
Bahuda, rtmr 48n
B^uda, river 48n, 50 and n, 5in
Bahudaka, people 45n, 74n
Bahndasa, wrong reading 5in
Bahuka, people gSn
Bahula, people 34 and. n
BaBya, people 3 in
B^ya, river 59, 59n
B^yatodara, people 34n
Baidyanathadham, locality 89-90
Baigram, locality 276, 295, 297
Bairat, locality 112
Bairaua, locality too
Baithana, Gre^ form of Pratisthana
227

Baji Rao I, Peshwa 76
Baka, people 201

Bakhtiyar Khalji, leader of Turkish
Muslims 153

Bakla, territoTy, same as Bakla-Gandra-
dvlp 133, 140
Bdlahhdrata^ work 41 n
Baladhuri, author 209
Balagrama, locality 297
Balakadesa, territory 259
Balakarini, river 62n
Balangir, locality 335
Ba^lan^jomSy ^ bull’-compress^ 265
Bdla-Ramqyana^ work 303
Balasore, locality 175, 178-79, 217;

District 159, 173, 176-79
Balasore- Cuttack- i:^uri region 178
Baiatkara, person 170
Balavahinl, river 56n
Balban, Sultan oj Delhi I29n
Balchappar, locality 49n
Baleokouros, king 226n
Balhara, king of Mankir 142, 144 and
n, 145 and n

Balhika, Balhika, people and country
10, 13, 200
balij ^offerings* 276
Bali, temtory of the Bsdinesc 322

Balkh, territory 5211, 100-01, 193, 198,
203; region 10, 32, 236
Ballahra, same as Balhara 145
Baluchistan, territory 32
BMuka, river San
Balurghat territory 273
BaluvahinT, river 35 and n
Bana-bhatta, author g, 14, 121, i86n,

206-08

Banaras, city 31, 127, 190, 214, 220;

District 190
Banas, river 330

Banav^i, city 39n, 188, 191 and n,

257

Banda District 31, 147, 336
Bandar, place I38n
Bandhana, river 53n
Banerjea, J. N. i76n
Banerjee, G.C. I33n, 22in
Banerji, same as Vandyopadhyaya

139^

Banerji, R, D. 296n
Bang, Vahga 13 in, 132, 134,

153-58

Bahga, same as Vahga 134
Banga<^, locality ii2, 160, 334n
Bangai, couMry 123, I3in, 132, 134,

BangMa, city and territory i23n, I35n,
139 and n, 141 and n
Bangaiah, same as Bangala 139
Bangui, people of Bangaia 139
Bangkok, city 324
Bangla, same as Bangala 139
Bahgroda, locality 134
Bang wa S’-n’-k-n-at 135
Banka island 23 2n
Banla, same as Bangaia iggn
Bannu, locality 293
Bantay, locality 321
Banteay Srei, locality 321
Barabati, locality 179, 18 1
Barabhum, territory 122
Barah-chatra, locality 279, 28on
Baraka, Greek form of Dvaraka 225
Bara Khera, locality 49n
Baramula pass 204
Bdrava, people 68n
B2cc\sslx2l^ people i I4n, 231, 233
Barbaria, locality 233
Barbaricum, city 34n, 114, 234
Barbarike, same as Barbaricum 231
Barbosa, author 135
Barce, locality 230
Bardhankot, locality 100, 122
Bareilly, locality 201-02, 204;

District 30, 99

Bareilly-Farrukhabad r^on 201 , 204
Bargaon, locality 325
Barhamshil« locality 306-07

348

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Bari, city 5211,

Bari, locality 155
Bandjsh, river 52n
Barind, territory 13111, 1580
Barkalur locality 96
Barley Island 322
Barli inscription 256
Barmhattar, territory 370
Barnett- L. D, 248
Baroda, locality 26, 75, 256
Barthema, author 135
Barthold, V-V. 147
Barua, B.M, 193, 282n, 3o8n
Barua, K.L. 127, i28n, i6i and n,
162, 164, 163 and n
Baiurah, king of Qannawj i45n
Baiygaza, Greek form of Bharukaccha
225-27

Basarna, wrong reading 43 n
Basim, locality 186, 188
Bassac. locality 320
Battamang, locality 321
Baudhdyana Dharmasutra 41 n, 219
Baudrand, French geographer 137
Ba’urah, king of Qannawj, 144115

145

Bavari, monk 189, 264, 266, 272
Baydhsfj for ty two villages* 25 7n
Bayana, locality 31, 241-42
BayofBengal 7-8, 10, i 3 -i 4 : 23, 54n,
58n, 59n, 6 in, 73n, 90, 105, 112
andn, 116, 122, 130, 136, 140, 164,
172-73^ 216-18, 236, 243, 285, 334n
Bazana, locality 241-42
Beal, S- i64n, i82n
Beas, river 49n3 237-38
Bedaparvata, hill 336n
Bejaponr, locality 280
Belgaon, Belgaum, locality 97, 188,
190; District 210, 310
Beliary District 192, 247, 308
Bellar^-Anantapur region 247
Beluchistan, territory 102
Benares region 107
BendaU, G. 126
Bendas, river 227

Bengal, territory 7-8, 10, 12-14, 16,
23, loi, 103, 105-06, 112-13, 117-
19, 121-26, I29n, 130, 131 andn,
134 and n, igsn, 136 and n, 137
and 0,138-43, i52:-543 1585 160,170,
173, 174 n, 181, 190- I, 213-16,

224, 247-48, 25on, 276, 286, 294,

29611, 301, 335, 341; Central
East 106, 123, 13m, 133-34^ 13511^
137 and n, 138 and n, 149, 153-
55, x 62, 298-99, 301; Lower 172,
217, 221; Ftorth 37n, 500, 100^

102, 104, III, 122-23, 152, 159,

160, 161 and n, 163, 165, i68.

2140, 216, 275-76, 280, 294-

95, 297-98, 341; kforth-East 109;
South 10, 36n, 140, 162, 164, 168,
172, 2x8, 232n; South-East 36n,
105, 123, I3in, 140, 151, 156,
299; South-West 37n, 38n, 123,

152, i58n, 159, legn, 217, 221;

West 106, 1 17-19, 122-23, I35»,

168, 1 71, I73“74:» 177. 206, 295,

299

Bengala, territory I3in, 135-36, i37n;
city 131, 135, 137, 138 and n, 141
and n

Bengalee, same as Bengali, 139
Bengali i26n, 127-28, 130, 137-38,

139 and n, 222, 243, 279, 298, 30911;
ballad 135; literature^ I 2 i, 137;
tradition 103

Bengali-speakmg — area i^gipeople 105;
121, 130

Berabai, locality 72n
Berar, territory 39n, 43n, 97, 113, 188-
go, 304; style r86
Berbera coast 233
Berhampur, locality 6 in
Bes, river 53n
Besali, river 53n

Besnagar, same as ancient Vidi>a 430,
5311, g8, 186, 205, 264, 266, 333,

« 338 .

Besula, river 52n
Betul District 57n

Betwa, river 5311, 550, 5711, 98, 147,

186, 205, 338
Bhadra, lake i8n,

Bhadra, territory 261
Bhadra, type of elephant 332 and n,
340 and n
Bhadra, river 96
Bhadraka, people 33n
Bhadrakali, goddess 82, 83n, 97
Bhadra-kalpa, age 254
Bhadrakara, people 30
Bhadrasva, mythical region 18, 20,

21 and n

Bhadravarman, king 321
Bhagadatta, mythical king 160, 163-64
Bhagalpur, locality 36n, 89, 250, 254n,
332; region 254, 332
Bhagalpur-Monghyr region 332
Bhdgavata Bur ana 3n, 26, i68n, 25 2n,
284-85

Bhagiratha, mythical king 65 and n, 66n
Bhagirathi, same as Gahga 36n, 65n,
66 and n, 90, 120-21, 152, 169,
1735 asSn
Bhaguri, sage 331
Bhaiksnki, alphabet 1 27
Bhailasvamin, Sun-god 263
Bhaillasvtaii-mahadvadasaka-

349

mandala^ territory 257, 263
Bhaillasvamin , Sim-god 263

Bhaimaratlii, sam ase Bhimarathi,
river 6511

Bhairab, river 120

Bhairava, aspect of Siva g i ; Amrta
100

Bhairavi-Vimala, goddess 91
Bhakti cult 34011
Bhamina, people 412a
Bhamo, locality 319
Bhandara District i88j 304
Bhandarkar, D. R. yn, 42115 14911,
2o8n. 20911, 2 1 on, 23 yn, 262n, 3o6n
Bhandarkar, R. G, 25n
Bh"nu III, Eastern Ganga king 180
Bhanudatta, chief iy8
Bhanukaccha, mistake for Bbarukacclaa

Bbaradvaja, mge 32n
Bharadvaj a, people 35, 35n

Bharadvaka, people 35n
Bharata, kin: 2, 3 and n
Bharata, people 3 and n, 70 and n
Bharata, author oj the Jsfdtya- 'dstra 125
Bharata, same as Bharatavarsa 21
Bharata, same as Bharata-varsa i8,
20-21, 58n, 66n, 83n, 191, 252, 259
Bharata-khanda 259
Bharata-mallika, author 296n
Bharata-muni, author 175
Bharata-varsa 3 and n, 5 and n,
6-9, 12-13^ 15, 2in, 22, 29-30, 48,
I39n, 171, 195, 200, 205, 213, 219,
230, 259, 325, 328
Bhdrati-prajdi Bhdrati-santati 3 and n,
5n

Bharatpur, city zxadi territory 31, io8n,
112, 241-42, 261

Bharelia, locality 149
Bharga, people 37n
Bhargava, same Parasurama 32
Bharga va, people 37 and n
Bharoch, locality 225, 260
Bhrrukaccha, same as Bnaroch, locality
225-26, 271

Bharukaccha, same as Bharukaccha
28, 42 and n

Bharukaccha, Bharukaccha, people
42 and n

Bhaskaravarman, king of Kamarupa
124, 161-62, i77j 214, 326
Bhasvat, locality 147
bhdid ‘ebb-tide’ i33n
Bhatera copper-plate grant 164
Bhati, territory 1330, i35n
Bhatinda, locality 291
Bhattacharya, B. 75-76
Bhattacharya, B.G. 308 and n
Bhattacharya, P.N> i62n, 164, 297n,

2980

Bhatta-Divakara, Brdhmana 294n
BhaU-dgrahdra, rent free holding 29 yn
BhattaStli, N-K- 149, 152, 25011,

299n

Bhattasvamin, commentator 190, 233-

Bhattini-Mattuva, goddess 25on
Bhatul, mountain 52n
Bhauma^ Bhauma-Kara, royal family
146, 148, 174-76, 178-80, 256
Bhautta, people 103
Bhavabhuti, dramatist 188, 304, 306,
326, 328

Bhavadeva, king 150
Bhavadeva, author 222
Bhavanipur, locality 49n
Bhavapura, city 320
Bhavisya Purdna izQ, 90, 100^ 105, iii-
12, 121-22

Bhavnagar, locality 208
Bhayanaka, country 262
Bhayiliasvamin, Sun^^god 338
Bheraghat inscription 41 n
Bhil, people 44n, 240

Bhillamadeva, Tddava king 144x1
Bhillamala, city 240-41
Bhilsa, city 43n, 98, 147, 186, 205,

257n, 264, 338
Bhima, Pdndava hero 164
Bhima, people 6gn
Bhima, Sdhi hng 292
Bhima, river 59n
Bhimadeva, prince I44n
Bhimaraja, prince 170
Bhimaraksi, river 59n
Bhimaratlia, river 590
Bhimarathi, river 59 and n, 64 andn
Bhimaromaka, people Ggn
Bhinaiki Caurasi, territory 256-57
Bhinmal, city 240, 242
Bhir District 193
Bhir Mound at Taxila 289
Bhirukaccha, same as Bharukaccha,
people 42n

Bhoganagara, locality 264
Bhogavardhana, locality and people
39 and n, 4on

Bhoja, king of Kanauj I45n, 146

Bhoja, Par amir a king ii, 15, 830,
129-30, 132, 210

Bhoja,/reoj&/<? 30, 43 and n, 44n, 20on
Bhoj aprabandha^ work i3on
Bhojya, people 43n
Bhokardan Taluk 4on
Bhopal, city 53n
Bhotan, country 103
Bhotanta, country 78, 84, 103
Bhramara, people 69 and n
Bhramartoiba, Bhramarambika,

350

geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

goddess 82, 94

Bhr^kacchaj port and people 42 and
n, in, 1 13, 209, 336-37
Bhmgarifca-Gatuhsasti-pathaka,
territory 25 7n, 263
Bhubaneswar, city 43n, 89-90, 105,

122, 134^, 167
Bhuj, city 109

Bhujagavara, mythical territory 23
bkukti^ a*territorial tmii 160, 162
Bhulihga, people 30-31
bhumicdla- '^knowledge of sites' 314
Bhup^augh-drcita^caYai(ia, title q/'Raja
ICrsnacandra in
Bhuta, mythical territoiy 23
Bhutan 279

Bhutavara, mythical territory 23
Bfmoanakoia^ section of the Purdnas 80
200

Bhuvane^a, delt 81, 85, 89, 105, 122,

i34n ^

Bibhuraja, king 187
Bidaspes, same as Vitasta, river 49n,
loi, 204
Bihal 261 n

Bihar, territory 12-13, 31, 42n, 5 in,

8g, 101-02, 104-05, 107, 1 19, 122-
24, 126, i3in, i35n, 141, 152, 159,
161-62, 171, i74n, 194, 210-11,

213, 2i4n, 216, 247-249, 25on,

252, 255, 279, 282, 286-87, 30in,
308, 320-21, 325 > 333 - 35 ? 336, 341 ;
East 36n, 160, 168, 254,332, 335;
North 16, 20, 37n, 280, 323;

South 62n, 90, 109, 248-50, 254;

South-West 332, 335
Bihar Sharif, locality 127
Bijapur, city and territory 97, 279-80
Bikaner, city and territory 203
Bilad-i-Bang, territory i58n
Bilaspur, locality 106, 27on;

District 44n, 261
Bileivari, goddess San
Bilhana, poet 191, 210
bilva^patra 103
Bilvasaila, hill 338 and n
Bindusaras, lake 5 and n, 8, 13
Binka, locality 78

Bipasis, same as Vipaia, river 49n
Birat-raj ar Gadh lOO
Birbhum District 117
Bitur castle 52n

Biy^, Biyaha, same as Vipasa, river
5in, 52n

Biyatta, same as Vitasta, river 5 in,
5211

Blaev, author 135, i38n
Blochman, H* i38n, 299, 300 and n
Blue Mountain 93
Boar incarnation of Vi$nu 277

Bodhan, city 400, 189, 193
Bodha, people 30-31
Bodhgaya, locality 219, 313, 320
Bodhi tree 322

Bodzah, Arabic corruption of Bhoja
1450

Bogra District 37n, 112, 122, 160,

214, 276, 295, 333
Bolpur, locality 117
Bombay 26, 4on, 173, 194, 226-27 ^

256. 261 and n, 270 and n, 274 n
Bonis, locality 231
Borneo, territory 322
Boucephala, dp 230
Bozah, Arabic corruption of Bhoja
1 4511

Brace, locality 231
Brahma, territory 37n, 284n

brahmadeya-nydya 246
Brahma-Gaya, holy place 288
Brahma-Ksatriya, community 2g2n
Brahma-kunda, holy pool 277-78
Brahmaloka, heavenly world 220
Brahman, god I29n, 222, 323

Brahmana, community 128 and n,
129 and n, 196, 21 1, 233n, 246,
248, 250, 264, 286-87, 292, 294,396
and n, 2)7-98; kingdom 323;
minister 2(^1'; origin 292; society
16, 287

Brahmananda, author 183
Brahmana-lSahi, royal family 291
Brahman avaha, locality 260
Brahman dahga, locality I38n
Brahmdnda Pur ana sn, 26, 201, 243,

283, 285, 340, 34111
Brahman!, Brahman! , river 58 and n
Brahma Parana 26, 243, 277
Brahmaputra, river 10, 50n, 5in, SSn,
8r, 85, 90, 102, 109, 122, i33n,
160, 16 in, 163-65, 200, 334 and n,
335^> 337? 162-63;

vall^ 93, 123, 1 61
Brahmasaras, holy pool 278, 284, 288

Brahma^ila, locality 303-04, 306-07
Brahma-tirtha, hop place 338
Brahmavardhana, locality 338 and n
Brahmavarta,^em^o^ 49 n, no, 2i3n,

239

Brahmayoni, hill 286, 288
Brahmi alphabet 27
Brahmottara, territory and people 37
and n, 70 and n
Brhadgrha, people 42n
Brhadi 4 vara temple 95
Brhaspatismrti 284n
Brhaspati-kunda, holy pool 278
Bxhatkathdilokasamgraha^ work 73n
Brhatsamkiid) work 26, 33n, 35n, 38n
4on, 123, 156, i68n, i75n, 200,

INDEX

351

271 and n

Brindakoori, village 276
Broach, locality 42n, 52na 54n, iii,
G 1 13, 225, 337; District 56n3 207,
225, 27411

Broucke, author 13811
Brtraghni, river 52
Bruzah, Arabic corruption of Bhoja
I45n

Buckergimge District 123, 13 1, 133-

34, 14O3 150

Buddha 19, 77, 127, 197, 2i4n, 253,

254 and n, 255 and n, 264, 268,
274, 285-88, 313 and n, 319;
25 in number 254, 319
Buddhacarita^ work 285, 314
Buddha-Gaya, holy place 282n
Budhaghosa, commentator 271-72, 288
Buddhagupta, Mahdndvika 1 24
Buddharaja, Kalacuri king 208
Buddhavathsa^ work 2 1 1
Buddhism 159, 255n, 319, 323
Buddhist 5n, 72n, 127, 229, 254, 287,
308, 313; accounts 19; conception
of earth gn; kings 178, 296n;
raiuie 196, 255, 287-88, 308, 315;
scholars 19, lySn, 182, 2i4n, 315,

333; tirthas 19; tradition 3, 268;
works 253, 264, 288, 314
Budhagupta, Gupta emperor 4, 275-76
Budhi-Rapti, river 5on
Budil Pass 72n
Buhler, G. 126 and n, 127
Bukhara, territory 25, 52n
‘Bull-compress’ 265
‘Bull-joy’ 265

Bundelkhand, territory sSn, 57n,

146, 186, 205, 260, 306
Burdwan, locality 122, 217, 221
Burma, country 370, 66n, 73 n, 103,
142, 3 i 7 »> 318-19, 324-25^
335 » 341; Lower 319, 323
Burmese 37n, 66n; architecture 320;

manuscripts 272
Burnell, A*G . 223n, 298
Buttala, locality 324

C^amana dynasty 14
Gairamahagauri, wrong reading 58n
Gaisika, people 39
Gaitanya, Vaiynava saint 243
Caitar^acaritdmrta, work 6on, 243
Caitanyamahgala^ work 221
cakravdla gn, 19; cakravariin 4n;
parvata gn, 19

Cafcravarman, king of Kashmir 300
cakravarii-kseira ^n, 7-9, ii, 13-15,
130 and n, 219, 236
Cakravariin^ imperial title gn, 4 and n.

5 and n, 7-8,11,13,130

Gakrini river sSn

Gaksu, liver 65 and n, 66n, 68 and n,
Calcutta 9, 26, 75, i05n, 1300, rsgn,
153, i82n, 223, 238-40, 250, 270,

279 5 283n, 284n, 30 m, sogn, 3i8n,

327n

Galukya, royal family 10, 145 and n,
19 in, 192, 206, 210, 246, 305n;
Eastern 169, 31 1 ; Later 10; <^Badami

Calves of the Little Bear 330
Gamara, people 460
Cambay copper-plate inscription 305
Cambodia, country 320, 323-24
Gambyson, stream 173
Campa, city and river 36n, 89, 254
and n

Gampa, country 318, 321 and n, 332
Gampanagar, locality 89
Gampanagara, locality 319
Gampapur, locality 89
Gampapura, city 321
Gamparan, territory loi
Camparanya, same as Gamparan 84,
lOI

Gampos, author isBn
Camunda, deity 8g and n
Cahcala, riier 55n
Gandan, river 89
Gandana, river 510, 53 and n
Gandaraha, same as Gandrabhaga
river 52n

Gandarjuna, ''hief 154
Gandelia, royal family i, 146
Gandi, goddess; 1830
Candidasa, Vaisnava poet 221
Gandihara, Somavarhii king 178, 180
Candimangala, Bengali work 13511, 221
Gandimuda peak 150
Gandra, king 10, 236
Gandrabhaga, river 480, 49 and n,
5 in, 520, 63 and n, 640, 650, 238,
322

Gandrabhagaka, same as Gandrabhaga
640

Gandradvipa, territory 133, 140, 150-

Gandra dynasty 133-35, 138, 140^

150-52

Candragarbhasutray work 77
Candragarhhavaipulyay work 77
Gandragiri, hill 96
Gandragomin, author 267 and n
Gandragupta 1 1 , Gupta emperor
4, 10, 185, 207, 2250, 236
Gandraha, same as Gandrabh^a,
river 5111

Gandranatha, hill Sgn, 116-17
Gandrapida, fictitious king 9

352

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL. INDIA

GandrapurT-visaya, territory 162
Gandravasa, river 6411
Condravrttiy work 267
Gandrika, river 48x1, 490
Ganga, mistake for Vanga 151
Ganku, wrong reading 5 m
Gantino’s chart 330
Gape Comorin 5, 8, 13, sgn
Garanadri, hill 85, 107
Garitravardhana, commentator 270
Garmakhaadika, people 32, 33n
Garmanvati, river 53 and n, 64n
Carmanyavati, same as Garmanvati,
ri er 530

Gamatic, territory 76, 247n
cam 276

Caryd songs 127-28
Gastana, Satrap 225n, 226-28

Gata, country 261
Gathayj country I43n
Gattakhandika wrong reading 33n
Gatnrasika, ‘84 villages* 256n, 257
Gatarasiti, ^eighty four* 256-57
Gaturasitika, same as Gaur^i 257
Gatur-dvipa Vasumati 18
catultsamiidra 8-9
Gaturvarna 196
Caucasus^ mountain 230-31
Gaxida, same as Gola, people sSn
Caudvara-Kataka, locality 179
Gaula, people 78
Caulukya, royal family 263
Gaurasi, *^84 villages* 256-57
Gautang^ river 5on
Cauthia, kind of Pahcayat Board
276n

cavalaka, ^chick pea* 234
Gedi, people and country 22on, 260,

27 333 335* 34i j S^s

^6xiy 167; country 147, 338, 341
Gedi-Karusa, Gedi-Karusaka, forest
333-35

Central — As^a 8, 24-25, 29, 33n, 67n,
77, 213, 255n, 291, 298; Deccan 40J1;
Egypt 205; India 33n; Provinces
^ 4 : 5 . 325

CetiyUs Sanskrit Caitya 264
Ceylon, country ii, no, 1x4, 116, 21 1,
236, 244, 3159 316 and n, 317,324-

330

Ceylonese 212, 244; chronicles 170,

I7in, 325; people 3x7
Chakravarti, N.P, i24n
Chalan, bil {lake) 1x2, 335n
Ghalaur, locality 49n
Gham, people 66n
Ghambal, river 53n, 54n, 57, 339

Chanda, R. P* y 6 n
Chandra, Moti 32
Ghandur Taluk 188

Gha-puo-ho-lo, town 326
Charikar, locality 5 in, 230
Charsadda, locality 33 n
Ghatigam, same as Chittagong 13811
ckatra 279
Ghatrapatha 7211
Chatter;} ee, B*R, i24n
Ghatterj ee, S. K . 127
Chattisgarh, territory 62n, 185
Ghattraghaut, locality 280
Ghauki, locality 249
Ghaul, locality 226
Gheen, same as Pegu 1 03
Che-fo-lo-fa-ti, river and city s6g
Ghenab river ^ 33^y 34»-3 S^n, 47n,
49n, 113, Ggn, 205, 230, 322
Ohe-pa-lo-fa-ti, river and ci;^ 269
‘chick pea’ 234
Chi eng Mai, territory 323n
Chieng Rai District 323
Ghi-kieu-mo, king 326
Ghi-lo-i-to, king 326
China, country 104, i78n, 323
Ghinab, river 113
China Sea 164
Ghindwin, river 323
Chinese, people 66n, 77, 80, 232,

293n, 322; account 93, 178, 184,

233, 269, 286, 293; pilgrim 160,

206, 214, 285n, 286, 293, 293n
Ghingleput District 336
Ghitor, same as Gitod 32, 241, 305n
Ghitral, territory 182
Chittagong, locality 136, and n, 137,
138 and n, 1410; District 1x7,
131 and n, 134-355 142,

copper’-plate 156
Ghittar, river 6on

Ghittoor, Ghittur, District 96, X15
Ghola, clan 175

Ghota Nagpur, territory 62n, 159-60
Christian era 19, 34n, 286
Ghryse, territory 23

Ghunar, locality 107-08

Gina, country and people 34 and n,
67 and n, 68 and n, 84 and n, 103,
104 and n, 160, 163-64, 232
Gina-Klirata, people 232
Cina-maru, territory 68n
Ginta, river 58n
Citang, river 5on
Gitod, fort 336
ciira^ ‘painting’ 326
Gitra, 48n, 5 in, 54n
Citrakara, ‘painter’ 327
Gitrakunj avat, hill 327-28
Gitrakuta, same as Gitod 241, 3050,
336

Gitrakuta, hill 55n, 336

INDEX

353

Gitrakuta, river 54n> 55 and n
Gitrang, river 5on
Gitra^ila, river 58n
Gitrotpala, river 55 and n
Classical — authors 23, 49H, 5on- 213,
217-18; Sanskrit 237
Goastal Orissa 341
Oocbhihm:^ territory 93, 100, rii-12,

160

Godaganga, Eastern Gahga kin^ 169
Goedes, G. 317x1, 319x1, 32 in, 322n,
32411

Coimbatore District 315
Cola, people and country 7, 38 and n,
78, 82-83, 99? 246n, 266; empire
317; records 1 9 1 n
Colesa, deity 95
Goliya, territory 165
Golya, people 38n
Comilla, locality 149, 150, 152
Comorin, locality 330
Gonjeeveram, city 315
Constantinople, city 118
Coorg, territory 4.0x1
Coras’, same as Caurasi 256
Cordier, author 14.2x1
Gortesao, A., author 14.1x1
Cowell, auf’or 214x1, 268 and n, 274
Cowrie used as coins 145
Cox’s Bazar, locality 1350, 142
Grooke, W-, author 2 jSxl^ 2g^n
Gudaganga, same as Godaganga 170
Cuddalore, city 211
Gudika, people 35n
Gulaka, people 68n
CulavaThsa, work 170 and n, 171
Culika, people 35 and n, 36n, 68n
Cullaniddesa^ work 264
Cullavag^a, work 253n
Cunningham, Alexander 73n, 230,
238-40, 249, 282n

Cupil Mani, same as Kapila-muni 223
Curna, people 36n

Cuttack, city 169, 174-78, 217;

District 169, 171, i 73 - 74 »

177-80, 18 1 and n, 217, 285
Cuttaek Balasore region 178-79
Cuttack-Puri-Ganjam area 177-78,
217

Dabhala, country 29on
Daboka, locality 298
Dacca, city 90, 133 - 34 :.

158, 160, 172, 216, 25on, 298-302;
District 90, 136 and n, 149, 153 - 54 ^
1575 299n, 320; Museum 150;
Muslin 298; University I20n, I24n,
154, 248n, 276n
Dadiii Ocean 17 and n

Dahala, Dahala-mandala territory
258, 260, 263

Daham, Dahma, Dahmay, Dahmi,
Dahum AraMc corruptions of DhsLxrxiB.
144, 146-47
Dakarnava, work 132
Dakhin-dahga, locality 1 38n
dakm, same as Sanskrit daknna 83n
Daksina-de;^, territory 325
Daksina-Kosala, cotmiry 43x1
Daksina-lipi, alphabet 1 27
Daksinapatha, territory 14-15, 38,

57n, 60 n, 650, 80, 130, 188-89,
2i3n, 2i4n, 21911, 228, <^041 pmpU
38

Daksina-Tosala, territory 43n
Daksipatya, some as Daksinapatha
29, 40 and n, 46n, iB6n, 2i3n,
214; people 40, 46 and n, 2i9n
Daksinodadhi, ^Southern Ocean* 66
and n, 71 and n
Dalma hills 62n
ddmara, ^rural landlord* 300
Damirika, territory 229 and n
DamnI, Arabic corruption of Dharma
144

Damodara, kin% oj East Bengal 156-57
Damodarpur, locality 275-76, 280-81;

plates 162, 275n, 276, 280, 295, 297
DaixiSana, people 34n
Daihstrahkura, holy spot 278
Daidaka, forest people 39 and

Dan din, author 125
Dantapura, locality 255n
Danu, headless grant 327
Danuj Rai, king 157-58
Darada, people 34 and n, 68 and n
Daratpuri, city ^4x1
Darbhanga region 10 1
Daripatha, locality 73n
Darius I, Achaemmian king 25, 199
Darsi, locality 185
Damkaccha, wrong reading 42XX
Darukesvara, river 90
Darva, D^xva., people and land 36 and
n, 45 .and n, 252-53
Darvabhisara, territory 36n
Das, J. M. 335n
Dasakumdracarita^ work 192
Dasama, people 34n
Dasamalika, people 33n
Daiamanaka, people 33. 33n
Dasamanika, Dasamanilm, people 33n
Dasanamaka, people 34n
Da^namika, people 3411
Daianapura, city 185
Dasapura, city 277
Dasarathadeva, king of South-^East
Bengal 157-58

354

GEOGRPHY OF ANQIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Daiarathi-Rama, incarnation of
Visnu 32

Dasaxna, country and people 4311, 98,
185-87, 205-06, 332 and n, 333-
34.5 336-37, 338 and n
Dasama, river 55 and n, 570
Dasarna-giii, kiU 338
Da^amaka, forest 336, 338
Daseraka, people 35 and n
Dasgupta. N. N- 13911
Dasht valley 34n
Datta mling fkmily 178
Daulatabad fort in
Daulatpura inscription 240
pavaka, kingdom 298
De Barros, author 120
Deccan, territory 14, 27, 32, sgn, 96,
108, 130, 141, 143, 213, 304-05;
Northern 4on; Southern 192, 245;

Western 1 92
Deeg, river 5on
^^j 3 .-maharaja, chief 187
Ddiaware, country and river 21 1
Delhi, city 30, 05, qq-ioi, 104, 106,
1 15, i29n, 157, 180, 202, 204, 21 1,
340; region 201-03, 205, 260
Delhi-Mecrut region 202-03
Dendavanaka-vi§aya, territory 240
Deoli copper-plate inscription 305n
Deoria District gSn
Desai, Z-A. i23n
Deulbacji, locality 149
Deva, ntythical territory 23
Deva, royal family 157
Deva, river 49n, 50n
Devabhadra, 261

Devadaha, locality 313
Devagiri, city Vitxd fort ni, 194
Devagupta, king of Malava
Devaka, country 234
Devakhadga, king of'Ezst Bengal 149
devakula, ^temple^ 275-76, 28 in
Devakuta, mountain i8n
Devanadi, river 49n
Devapala, king o/Oauda ii, 13, I4n,
141, 146-48, 248, 250
Devaparvata, city 150-52
Deva-prastha 80, 87, 114, 116-17
Devasabha, locality 80
Devavara, rrtythical territory 23
Devi, M.other~goddess 250
I>evika, rwer 48n, 49 and n, 5111, 65n
Devikotta, locality 112 and n, 165,

334 n

Deviku^a, pitha iSsn
Devkot, locality i58n
Bey, NX. 2411, 41a, 54n, 195, a7on,
. 9780, aSsa , 9850, sosn, 314, 3a4n,

(6 33^11, 340

30W

Dhaka, scone as Dacca 298, 300-01
Dhakesvari, deity 298
Dhakka, locality 301 n
dhakkd, ^watch-station^ 300-01
Dhakka, same as Dacca 300
Dhakka Ba2Xi, locality 300
Dhakka-bhasa, dialect 301
Dham, Dhama, Arabic corruption of
Dharma 144^

Dhanapala, lexicographer 209
Dhanbad District 90
Dhanga, Candella king i, 146-47
Dhaniya, shephered 274
Dhaniyasutta^ Buddhist text 274
Dhankuta, locality 279
Dhanvati river 530
Dhanyavati, locality 319
Dhar, same as Dhara 210
Dhara, city 210 and n
Dharma, same as king Dharmapala
132, 143-44, 146
Dharmaditya, king 124, 208
Dharma-mahdmdtra^ officer 3
Dharmapala, king £)/* East India ii,
132, 142, I43-44> 146-43, 162, 251,
288, 298

Dharmaraj a, Satlodbhava king 1 74
Dharma^astra 283-84
Dharmasutra 219
dharma-ydtrd, pilgrimage^ 313 -
Dharmodbhava, holy spot 278
Dharwar, city 188; District 190
Dhasan, river 55n
Dhataki, Dhatuki, river 48n
Dhataki, prince 22n
Dhataki-khanda, mythical territory 21,
22 and n

Dbauli, locality 3, 43n, 167, 175, 187,
33 ^^

Dhavala, river 5 on
Dhavalagiri, peak 279
Dhenuvata, holy spot 278
Dhivara, people 71 and n
Dhm, Dhml, Arabic corruption of
Dharma 144-45
Dholpur, locality 155
Dhrtapapa, river 48n
Dhrtara§tra, dikpdla 34on
Dhruvapura, city 320
Dhruvaraja, Adi-Bhanja king I76n
Dhnivasena II Baladitya, M^^*rnka
king 208

Dhulika, people 68n
Dhumela, river 5on
dhupa 276

Dhutapapa, river 48n, 50 and n, 5in
Dhutavahini, river 5511
Didda, queen of KLashmir 292
Didwaoa, territory 241
di^gaja 331 - 32 , 333-42

HCDEX

355

Dighanikaya, Buddhist text 25511
dig^vijaya 6-7, 164, 217, 236
dig’-vife^n, ^conqueror of the quarters^
6-7

Dihanda wrong reading 289-90
Dikhu, river 163

Dikkaravasinl, dAty 162-63; temple
16311

dikf>dla 331, 340
Dikrang, locality 163
Diksu, river 162-63
Dinajpur, locality 294; District 100,
ii2„ 160, 165, 246 n, 25on, 275-76,
280-81, 295, 33411
dfnara^ coin 275
Dmdori, locality 155
dtpa 276

Dipavathsa, work 211-12, 316
Dirghavapi, tank 324
diidm^pati^ *rtder of the quarter 4
Diskalkar, D. B. 18511
Dimdvaddna^ work 159, 21411, 268,

27411, 314, 316

Diyar-i-Bangala, territory 1 58
Doab 30511, 307

Dongagrama, village 275-76, 28111
Dong-duong, locality 32111
DordcoTLda-prahala’-pratdpa-parama^ title i
Dosara, city 187
Dosarene, city 187
Dosarenic ivory 186
Dowson, author 142 and n, I44n, 153
and n, 154 and n, 155 and n
Dradasya-visaya, wrong reading 260
Drada-visaya, wrong reading 260
Dramila, people 165
Dravaliiksetra, wrong reading 88
Dravida, people, same as Dravida 16,
78, ‘83n, 229, 260

Dravida, same as Dravida 83, 99,

128 and n, 129, 330, 336; country
127, 336; alphabet 127
Dravidian Son, 2i9n. 244, 325, 329
Drevika, river 49n
Driya, river 53 n

Dr^dvati, river 48n, 49n, 50 and n,

5 in, 64n, 99, no, 252-53
Druhya, people 33n
Druhyu, prince 20on
Dmma, river 54n
Druta, fortress 5 in
Duarte de Barbosa 135
Dubi copper-plate inscription 124
Dudh-kos!, river 279
Dugdha Ocean 17 and n, 22
Dugdhoda, river 6on
Dul^^anta, same as Dusyanta 2n
Dukha Bazoo, wrong reading 300
dukula 172

Dumi, Arabic corruption of I 44

Durga, people 40 and n, 41 n
Durga, rix>er 41 n, 58 and n, 8311,
26in

Durgama, rizm‘ 58n
Durgandha, river 5811
Duryodhana, epic king 6
Dusyanta, king 2

DvadaiSaditya-kunda, hoty pool 277
Dvaraka, city 42n, 83 and n, 85,
88, 97, 107-08, 1 15, 197-98, 224-

25, 324, 337 , 339 „

Dvaravati, dty i97> 282, 319^ $24,

336-37. 339.’ kingdom 324
dmpa 5n, 8, 24 and n, 25, 198, 230
Dvlpa^cakravartin^ tide 3, 4n
Dwab 198

Eartb-goddess 162, 277
Eastern — A^ia 21 1; CdJnkyas 15;
Ganga^ 170; Ghats 14, Sin; India 19,
38n,62n, 125-27, 144, 296n, 325;
Iran 24; Ocean 33411; BakiAan 90,
335n; Punjab 4.0,11, 46n; Sea 112,
160, 164-65, 236

East India — Company 247; alphabet
16; courts 126; king 146, 148;

kingdom 147; script 127; style 16
Edrisi, author 240, 329
Egypt, country 25, 230, 232, 234
Eg^tian Alexandria, city 233 and n
Ekababu-desa, territory 261
eka-cchatray 4, 7
Ekakama, people 7 in
Ekalavya, people 4.011
Efcapada, country 261
Ekasatakarma, text 269
Elamanci, territory 169
Elamanci-Kalingade^a, territory 169
Elapatra, same as Airavata 265
Elliot , or 77n, 142 and n, I44n,i53
and n, 154 and n, 155 and n
Elliot and Dowson, authors 142 andn
i44n, 153 and n, 154 and n, 155
and n

Eluru, locality 168
‘Encyclopaedia of the Sea* 300
English miles 307
Erapatha, same as Airavata 265
Eravati river 49n
Etesian winds 225n, 230
Ethiopia, country 2 5
Europe, continent 118, 318
European ^ — authors 223n; geographica
names 318; travellers 116; writers

131. 131. ^37. 168, 172-73

Fa-hien Chines traveller stSS
Faizabad, locality 106; District 324

356

geography of ancient and medieval INDIA

Fakir Mxihammad, author 13511
Faridpur^ locality 133; District 134
Farrukhabad. locality 1291X5 201-02,
204; District 30, 99, 20 r, 204, 21411
Faxi^sboell, author 272
Fernandas, F* 1360.

Firishta, author 23 and n, 290, 291,

33511

Fitcb, author I36n

Five — Gauda^ i6n; Indies 80; Prasthas
1 14; Rivers 237

Fleet, J.F., author 190, 236n, 310-11
Forbes, author 263
Fyzabad, same as Faizabad, locality,
3, 49n, 254; District 31, 254

Gabala, people 33n
Gabhastimat, mythical region ^n, 22n
Gadadbara, ascetic 294 and n
Gadavarta, holy spot 88, 1 15
Gadhipura, city 303, 304 and n
Gabadavala, royal family 256
Gait, E., author 16 in, i65n
Gaja, mistake j^?rTanja 315
Gajanaka, territory 260
gaja-pati 88n, 115-16
Gajasdstra 342
Galava, people 460
Gallic people 234
Garhdaki (Gandakl), river 84
Gampala, locality 324
Ganaka, people 350
Gar^pdtha^ work 73n, 273
Gandak, river 5 in
Gandaka, officer 275
Gandakl, river 48n, 50 and n, 5 in,

lOI

Gandaki-tira, territory lor
gandha 276

Gandhamadana, mountain 9, 13, i8n,
6in, 620, 236

Gandhamadana-varsa, mythical terri^
toty 2in,

Gandhara, people and country 52n, 68
and n, Sgn, 78, 109, 196, igSn,
232, 246, 247a, 289-90, 293, 319,
322-23; cities 197; country 289-91,
people 33, 196-97, 199, 200

and n, 289

Gandhara-visaya, territory dgn, 20on,
289

Gandharva, people 69 and n
Grandharva, Gandlaarva, territory, 5n
22n

Gandharva-deSa, territory dgn
Ga^em, deity &o
G^eSag^, hill 81, 93, 105, iir
G^p^eSvara^ deity 84, 86v 105, 11 1

fimityt i^, i^Sn,

165, 169-70, 175, 179-81
G^ga, ^Gangetid 172-73, 217
Gang!, river ii and n, 48 and n,
5 in, 54n, 65 and n, dSn, 70 and n,
ii2n, i32n, i33n, i 72 - 73 > 213

and n, 217-18, 220 and n, 221,

222 and n, 224, 295, 305n, 322,

3345 3375 33811, 340 and n, 341

and n

Gangadvara, holy place 220x1
Gahgd-hrdaya xyi, 215
Gangaikonda colapuram, city 317
Gangd-rddha, Gangd-rdstra 171, 215
Gangarid, Gangaridae, 164, 168,

171- 73, 213-15,217-18
Ganga-sagara, holy confluence ii, 52n,

172- 73, 218, 219 and n, 220 and n,
221-24, ^34

Ganga-sagara-sangama, same as
Ganga-sagara 13, 218

Gangasaugor, same as Ganga-sagara

223

Gangasripura, locality 324
Gangavadi, territory 257-58
Gangdvdky avail, work 222
Gange, city 171-72, 215-17
Ganges, river 48n, 49n, 5on, 5 in, 52n,
54n, 55n, 62n, 89-91, 99, 10 1, 104,
106, 118-2I3 132, 160, 163-64,

169, 171-72, 187, 215-18, 220,

248, 251, 253-255, 258, 269, 295,
3035 3051I5 3075 341; delta 120
Ganges-Jamxma Doab 305
Gangetic — people 172; spikenard
216

Gangeya, people 1 7 2-73 , 217

Gangian people 215-18
Gangodbheda, holy spot 341
Ganjam, locality 390, 169, 174-75,

177; District 39n, 6in, 159, 167,
169, 177-78

Ganjam-Puri-Guttack area 169, 174-

Garde, author 2o8n

Garhwal District 35n

Garuda, mythical bird 283, 294, 319

Garuda Purdna 22, 36, 55, 234

Gastaldi, author 120, 135

gdthd 284

Gaud, community 129
Gauda, country and people 15-16 78

and n, 105-06, 118-20, 123-285

129 and n, 130, 132, i34n, 137,
i58n, 1655 iSgxx, 177-78, i86n,

1 9 1, 206, 29411, 335; capital 124;
country 106, 121-22; court 126;

king 105, 186

Gau 4 a, ^village headman^ 125
Gauda-dela 85, 105, 121, 260
Gau4i^ka^ same as Gau<^ 123

iNBfiX

357

Gaudapura, city tig
Gaudacaha^ poem 4711
Gauda-Vanga, country 123
Gauda-Vangalaj country 335 and n
Gauda-visayaj territory gi
Gaudcsa, deity 121
Gaudesi, female deity 105, 121
Gaudi — alphabet 127; dialect 128 and
n; style of composition 186
Gaud-O dr-^ddi-^Kalinga-Kosala-pati^ title
165

Ganhati, city 93, iii, 163

Gaimarda, people 27 in
Gaur, same as Gauda 106, ii8, 120,
I23n, I29n, 134, 1370, ‘141, 153
Gaur-Bangal, Gaur-Bangala, same as
Gauda-Vangala 106, 123, 134
Gaur-Brahman, commimity i agn
Gaur";» goddess 14 and n, 221
Gauri-pitr (Himalaya) i4n
Gaur-Kayath, community 12911
Gaumadi Police Station 134
Ganro (Gaur), city i37n
Gaur-Rajput, community 1 29n
Gaur-Taga, tribe 1 agn
Gaur-Thakur, community 1 29n
Gaur-wa-Bangala, country 123, 335
Gautama the Buddha 254
Gautama-gotra 246
Gautamiputra, metronymic 228, 272-73
Gautamiputra Satakami, Sdtaoahc^
king 14, 193, 226-27
Gautamiputra Yajna-Satakarni,
Sdtavahana king 229
Gavuda^ ^village headman^ 125
Gaya, city 31, 50 and n, 56n, 90,

107, 222, 249, 254, 282-88;

District 107, 21 1, 285, 320
Gayala-Brahmana 286
Gaya mnimtain 286
Gaya-nadi 287-88
Gaya-Phalgu 287
Gaya-phalguni 287
Gaya-pradesa 107
Gaya-puskarini 287
Gaya-iiras, Gaya-sirsa 285-88
Gaydsutra, text 288
Gaya-tirtha 282, 286-88
Geiger, author 170, 265
Geography of Ptolemy 171, 173 215,

225, 322
Getty, A. lySn
Geyamalava, people 37n
Geyamallaka, people 37n
Geyamarthaka, people 37n
Ghaba, king 145
Ghaggar, river 49n, 5on
Ghagra, river 49n
Ghalcha, dialect 195
Ghataprabha, river 339

ghatta 108-09

Ghazna, city, same as Ghazni 260
Ghazni, city 35 ^^^ I 95 j ^^7 291-
93

Ghiyas Khaljl, Sultan of Mandu 306
Ghiyasuddin Balban, Sultan of Delhi
1 57-58

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq Shah, Sultan
of Delhi 134

Ghogra, rivers same as Gogra, 104
Ghorvand, river 51 n
Ghorivand, same as Ghorvand 5 in
Ghosa, locality 93
Ghosh, J.G. 282n
Ghoshal, U.N. 257n
Ghrta Ocean 2 in, 22
Ghrtavara-dvipa, mythical territory 22
Ghuzak pass 5 in
Girinagara, city 333
Giritata, locality 324
Girivraja, city 34n, 325
Girivraja-Raj agrha, city 107
Girjak, locality 34n
Gimar, kill 273, 333
Gladwyn, author 300, 328
Gnoli, author 1650
Goa, territory 43n, 109
Godana, same as Apara-Godana 19
Godavari, river 32, 3911, 4on, 57n,
58n, 59 and n, 64 and n, 65 n,
S3, 91^ 9S, 167-69, 1B8-89, 227,

265,272, 273n, 327; District (East)
167-68, 285; Upper 273
Code, P.K, 76n, 77
Godhkvari, same as Godavari 264-
65, 272

Gogardana, locality 265
Gogra, river, same as Ghogra 49x1
Goharwa inscription of Karna 140
Grojjiga, king 312
Gk>jjiga-Somanatha, deity 3x2
Gokak copper-plate inscription 187
Gokarna, holy place 1 1, 85 and n,

88 and n, 106, 116
Gokarna-ksetra, same as Gokarna 92
Gokarnesa, deity 106, 116
Gokula, locality 87, 109, 115

gokuta, ^milkman* 125
Gola, same as Gauda 319 *

Golamrttikanagara, locality 319
Gk>lanagara, same as Golamrttikanagara

319

Golahgula, people 38n
Golden Mountain 191
Gkimal, river 5on, 322
Gomanta, people 38n
Gomardana, locality 264-65
Gomati, river 48n, 50 and n 5111,
6411, 150, 322

Gomeda, people 38n

358

GEOGRAPItY OF AKGIENl" AND MEDIEVAL INi>lA

Goomtiy river son, 322
Gk>iiad<iha, locality, same as Gonarda
264*65, 271-72
Gonanda, people sSn
Gomrda, locality 3811, iSgn, 26411,
265-67, 270, 27in, people 38
Gk>nardana, locality 265
Gonarda- Vidisa region 266

Gk)nardiya, epithet of PatanjaK 265-
67

Grond, people 125

Gonda District 124*25,254, 297

Gondwana, territory 263

Gonga Saugor, same as Gangasagara
22311

Gopacandra, king 124, 186
Gopa hills 147
Gopala II, king 13
Gopalan, S. 342
Gk>rresio, author 2700
Grosvamini, queen 148
gotra 296

Grour, same as Gaur ii8n
Gk>vardhana, locality 32
Govinda III, Rd?trakupx king 132, 208
Gk>vinda IV, Rdstrakuia king 205n,
3055 312

Govindacandra, Candra king 132-33
Gk)vindacandra, Gdhadavdla king 256-
57 »

Govinda-Kesavadeva, king 164
Govindaraja, chief 187 and n
Graeco-Aramaic edicts of Asoka 330
grama 296

Grand Seignor of Constantinople 1 18
Grdhrakuta, hill 85, 107, 322
Great Bear 330
Great Mughul 299
*Great Port’ 136 and n
Greco-Roman writers 171-73
Greek, people 24-25, 32, 34n, 670,

dgn, 164, 198, 205, 213, 215-16,
227, 230, 316, 322, 330; authors 187;
geographer 590; politics 266
Groswarden, locality 2 1 1
Guakuchi copper-plate inscription

297

guda, *sugar^ 119
Gubadevapataka, city 178, 180
Guheivarapataka, city 178, 180
Gujar, same as Gurjara, people 240
Gujarat, country 41 n, 420, 53n, 56n,
94-95, 109, 207-08, 240-41, 256

and n, 260, 263, 273, 274n, 324;
South 207-08, 225-26, 231, 274n

Gujarati language 16
Gujaratra, territory 260
Gujar-Gaur, tribe 129x1.

Gulbadan Begam 123x1, 335 ^

Gulbarga District ii, igin, 310
Gulf of — Aden 233; Barygaza 226;
Cambay 530, 570, 274; Mannar

317

Guna District 410, 44n, 2720
Gunaka-Vijayaditya III, Eastern
Cdlvkya king 3 1 1

Gimtur District 340, 168, 309, 32 in
Gupta, dynasty 123, 159, 163, i74n,
206-08, 219-20, 234, 272, 275,

284; age 6, 160, 219, 280-82, 286,
288; empire 123, 162, 186, 298;

emperor 3, 6, 10, 16 in, 174; year

276

Gupta Ghaudhury, K.K. 150-51
Guptas ala, Guptasala locality 324
Gurgana, people 45n
Gurjara, people and country 16, 82,

83 and n, 94, 128 and n, 129,141-
42, 144 and n, 145 and n, 146-
47, 208, 240-42, 305n; country 242
Gurjara, i^ame as Gurjara 240 and n
Gurjara-de^a 263

Gurjara-Pratihara, 7 ‘qyal family 141-42,
144 and n, i45n, 146-47, 207-K18,
210, 241, 3o6n
Gurjara-rastra 240
Gurjaratra, Gurjaratra-bhumi,
iory 241-42, 260
Gusa, locality 93
Guzr, same as Gurjara 240
Gwalior, 31,212; territory 97-98,
257, 262n, 263, 272n, 304

Habibullah, A.B.M- i4in
‘Hadi’, group of peoples 78n
Hahala, mistake for Dabhala, country
29 on

Haihaya, clan 44n

Haimavata, same as Kimpurusa-varsa
21, 66n

Hairanayavata, same as Hiranmaya-
varsa 2i
Hall, author 25n

Hamadan inscription of Darius 25
Hamilton, author 224n
Hammira, same as Sult^ Mahmud
292

Hammiramahdkdvyay work 132
Hampi, locality 192, 308
Haihsa-Kerala, territory 81, 92
Hamsamarga, locality and people 35
and n, 45 and n, 74 and n
Hamsapura, locality 52n
Hamsavati, locality 319, 323
Hannikeri inscription 310-11
Hapta-Hindu, Sapta-Sindhu 52n
Hara, god 66n
Kara ntytkical territory 23

tmmx

55 §

Harabhusika, pe^le 3311
Haraha inscription 168
Haraliuna^ Harabura^ people 33 and n
Haramurttika, people 33n
Haramusika, people 33 n
Harapurika^ people 33n
Hararavi, river 480
Haravara, mythical UrAtory 23
Haravaravabhasa, rrythical territoTy 23
Haraz, wrong reading 239
Hardwar, locality 114
Harez, wrong reading 239-40, 242

Harezi, wrong reading 239
HEari, god 222 and n
Hari, mythical territory 20-21
ELariala, country 260
Haribara IT, king 192
Hariharaksetra, locality 51 n
Hariharalaya, locality 320-21
Harikela, country 133 and n, 13411,

Hankela, same as Harikela 156
Harikaladeva RanavankamaUa, king

157

Harikeli, same as Hankela I33n, 156
Haripnnjaya, locality 323 and n
Haritala, mythical territory 23
HaritI, goddess 250 and n
Harivarrda^ work 26, 115, 196, 252
Hari-varsa, mythical territory 20, 21 n
Hariyana, territory 260
Harkand, town 147
Haro, river 289

Har§a, same as Harsavardbana 121
Harsacarita, work 9, I4n, 24n, sBn,
105, 108, 121, i86n, 206, 208
Harsadeva, king of Assam 165
Harsa Slyaka, Paramara king 209-10
Harsavardbana, king 9, 108, 177-78,

208

BCarsavardbana, people 34n
Harsavarman, king 165-66
Harsola copper-plate inscription 209
Harvey, oMt^or I48n
Hastinapura, city 6, 30, 86-87, no,
115, I29n, 184, 202, 340
Hastings 327

Hatbigumpha inscription 193
Hazar, wrong reading 239
Hazara District 35n, 199, 203, 205,
246

Hazra, R. G- i82n, 33 7n
Hebbata copper-plate grant 245-46
Hedges author 223n, 224n
Heliodonis, Greek ambassador 266
Helmund, river 24, 198; vall^ 32
Hemacandra, author 132-33, 2 ion,
263, 265, 304

Hemadri, au^r 270, 334
Hema-giri, mountain 321 and n

Hemafcuta, mountain 20, 2 m
Hemasrnga-giri, mountain 321 and n
Henry Yule, author 298
Herat, locality 32, 33n
Herbbata, locality 245
Hesydras, river 49n
Hidimba, Aver 65n
Hika, demon 238
Hili, locality 295, 297
Hili-Balurgbat area 295, 297-98

Hill Tippera 158
Himacala, mountain 12 and n
Himadri, mountain 14, 640, io6, 334
EKmakuta, mountain 278
Himalaya 4-14, 29, 45, 48n, 49n, 5on,
66n, 80, 103-04, 130, 163, 200,

Qxs and n, 214, 236, 276 and n,
277-78, 281, 313,3*8, 334. 337,
339, 341 ; JSastem 45n; Pforthern 116;
Western 68n

Himalayan — locality 45n; people 31,
45n, 46n, 69n, 7on; prastka 116;
range 104; region 23, 45n, 46n,

102, i6in, 26in, 276; rivers 48n;
territory 29, 46n

Hima-parvata, same as Himalaya ^
278

Hima-^aila, same as Himalaya 1 1 and
n

EQmavac-cbikhara 276, 280-81
Himavanta, same as Himalaya 213x1,
278n

Hiina-var§a, territoiy 2 in, 66 and n
Himavat, mountain 5 and n, I2n,
i8n, 20, 48n, 51 and n, 63 and n,
68 and n, 2i3n, 2i4n, 275, 314,

337 . 3391^

Himavat-pada 5in, 63 and n

Himavat-parsva 5in

Himavat-parvata 278

Himgula, locality 82, 84, 88

Himgupitha, hoty place 84

Hina, people 46n

Hind, same as India i44n

Hindi, language 139; Eastern 127-28

Hindu, same as Sindbu 25 and n

Hindu 103, 154, 292. 307. 327-28;

kings 291 ; map 329
Hinduised 219
Hindu Kush 34n, 198, 230
Hindustan i29n, 147, 292
Hinglaj, locality 94-97, 102
Hingniberdi coppper plate grant
187

Hingula, mythical temritory 23
Hingula, locality 116
Bdngulaja, loc^ity 94, 102
Hingu-pitba, holy place 102
Hdppokoura, locality 226n
Hiralal, author 262x1

360

GEOGRAPHY OF AKGIE^^T AND MEDIEVAL llsrDiA

Hira mahadcvi, <fuem 176
Hiranmaya-varsa, mythual territory 20-
21

Hiranvati, river 4811
Hiranyapura* locality 184
Hiucn-tsang:, Chinese traveller 89, 104-
05, no, 121, 123, 156, 160, 178,
181, 195, I97n, 206-09,

242, 286, 293, 336
Hladika, river 5611

Hladini, river 65 and n, 66n, 71 and n
Hmawza, locality 319
HodivaJa, S*H. isSn, 141 and n,
142 and n, 143 and n, 144 and n,
14511, 154

Hodreya-visaya 248, 249n
Ho-lo-she-pn-lo. city 195
Hotna, n^thical elephant 33 2n
Honamanus, author isSn
Hooghly i33n, 136 and n, 223;
lyistrict 122, 154, 170; estuary 136;
river 215

Hormazd I, Sassanian king 239
Hormazd II, Sassanian king 239
Hosten, author igSn

people 33n, 68n
HradinI, river 66n
Hrezi, xjorong reading 239
Hudaka, people 45 n
Hudbuda, people 42n
Hudud ul-Alam^ work 142, I44n, 147,
290

Huhuka, Huhuka, 45 and n, 74
and n

Hultzsch, E. 1961a
Htmidy imndmi, work I23n, 335n
Humza, locality 35n
Hun a, people and country 7, 33n, 36 and
n, 45 and n, 47 and n, 78, 108,
200, 208

Huna, same as Hur a 78
Hut a-desa 85, 108
Hun, same as Hiina 3311
Hurpor, locality 301
Humskara, wrong reading 29on
Husamga Gori, same as Hushang
Shah, Sultan of Malwa 306
Hushang Alp Kh^ Ghfiri, Sultan of
Malwa 306

Huzr, wrong reading 240
Hwen Thsang, same as Hiuen-tsang
Chinese traveller 240
Hydaspes, river 49n
Hyderabad, city and territory 189-
9O5 i93» 245-47* 260, 273n,3io, 331
Hydraotes, river 49n
Hyphasis, river 49n

labadios, form of Yava-dvipa 322
11m al Fakihj cmOwr 148

Ibn Batuta, author i3in
Ibn Haukal, author 329
Ibn Khurdadbih, author 145
Idris', author 144, 146
Iksu, river 51 and n
Iksuda, river 61 n
Iksuka, river 61 n
Iksula, river 61 and n
IksumatJ, river 5in

Iksu Ocean, Iksu-samudra 17 and n,22
Iksvaku, clan 217, 273, 313-14* 324*

327

Ilavrta-varsa 20, 21 and n
Imperial Gahga dynasty 169 and n,
170

Imperial Gupta dynasty 1 1
Inde, territory 239

India i, 3, 5-8, gn, 13, 25 and n, 28,
59n, 73n, 77, 80, 94, 97, Ii4-i7>

1 19, 121, 124-26, I2gn, 130, I35n,
139 and n, 142-44, 146-48, i78n,
196, 206, 210-14, 216, 219-21, 224-
25, 230, 234, 241, 255n, 256, 263,
267-68, 271 and n, 279, 287-91,

303, 3i4n, 315, 322-25, 327, 329,
333 * Central 42n, 125, 186; Eastern
I, 16, 38n, 62n, 119, 121, 123-28,

139, 142-44, 146* 166, 177, 213,

216, 221, 224, 296n, 3o8n, 320,

325* 333; Northern 13-16, 27-28,

102, 106, 1 15, 129-30, 139, 189,

213 and n, 247, 269, 3o8n; North--
Western 28, 119,220, 2/1^0 \ Southern
13-16, 92, 127-30, 243 309, 317;

Western 4211, 207, 209, 213, 219,

224, 226-27

Indian — alphabet 31 1; art 250; carto-
graphy 329; custom 318; geograpky
243; history 211,289,299; emperor
5, 6, 8, 13; literature 23n, 156, 171,
183, 185, 217-18, 230-32, 316, 320;
maps 328; models 320; name 187,
233; Ocean 5, 7-8, 10, 13-14, 130,
236, 329-30* 33^* 339 i 330;

rulers 1-2,7; social system 25n;
tirthas 283; tradition 266
Indo-Ghina, territory 322
Indo-Greek 33n, 197-99* 205, 232;

king ig8; settlements 33n
Indonesia, territory 322
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent 22n
Indore, city and territory 57n, 97-98,
190, 264

Indo-Scythia, territory x 14, 233
Indra, god 331 and n, 340
Indra III 305 and n, 306x1
Indra-de§a, territory 83n
Indraditya, chief 323
Indradvipa, territory 5n, 2211, 66n, 73
and n

IrJDEX

Indradvipa-samudra 73 and n
Indradyumna-saras 72 and n
Indra-giri, hill 322
Indrahasa, people Ggn
Indraji, Bhagwanlal 225, 272
Indraloka^ holy spot st*jj
Indra-maru, territory 69 and n
Indrapala, king ^ Assam 297
Indraprastha^ city 30, 83^ 99-1 oi>

201-03, 205, 340

Indra-prastha, territory 80, 87 and n,

114-15

Indrapura, locality 320-21
Indraianku-patha 72n
Indus, same as Sindhu, river 10, 25
and n, 33n, 34n, 490, 5on, 5in,
52n, dgn, 114, 182, 198 n, 225,

230-31, 233-36, 289-91, 319, 322,
337 » 339; Lower 225n, 231 ; vall^ 27
IqHm-i-I^khnauti, territory 158
Iradate, territory 239
Iran, country 24, 23n, 100, 205
Iranian 52n, 199

Iraq, country 103, 202, 205

Irava, river 52n

Iravati, river 42n, 48n, 49 and n, 5 in,
52n, 65n, 238, 319
Irawadi, river 66n, 318-19, 323
Ilia, dikpdla 331 and n
l^ana, dikpdla 331
Isanapura, city 320, 324
Isanavarman, Maukhati king 124,
168, 320
Ishtpal, king 290
Iskand^, same as Alexander 289
Islam K-han, governor 299
Island Sagor, same as Ganga-sagara
224n

Isthmus of Kra 72n

Isvarapura, city 321

I-tsing, Chinese traveller 156, 324

Jabalpur, city 43n, 334-35^ 33 ^;

District 43n, 147, 341

Jacobi 125

Jadura, wrong text 241

Jayanaga, king oj Karnasuvarna 24

Jagannatha, god 81 and n, 82, 83n,

85, 88, 91, 94, 107, 1 16, 153-54

183 and n

Jagannatha-ksetra, locality 324
Jagannatha-Pui'i , locality 1 53
Jagara, people 35n
Jaguda, 35 and n, 293

Jahahuti, territory 260
Jahanabad, territory 155
Jahangir, Mughul emperor 299
Jahangimagar, ^city 299
Jahravar, locality 33n, 52n

Jmlam, same as JheIam,nz«T 5 in, 52n
Jain community 173, 308-09; author
21, 24; literature 24, 234, 3^9
temple 308; tradition 174, 226, 308
Jaipur, city and territory 31, 203-05;

region 112, 203, 205, 261 ^

Jaipur- Alwar-Bharatpur region 31,
261

Jaipur-Bikaner region 203
Jaipur-Tonk region 205
Jajati, prormnciaiion of Yayati 1 79n

Jajjamau, locality 307
Jajnagar, kingdom 13 in, 179-80,
181 and n

Jajpur, city 117, 178, 180-81, 285
Jalabindu, holy spot 278
Jalalabad, locality 293
Jal^pur, locality 34x1
Jalaluddm, 158

Jalandha, mistake Jbr Jalandhara 78
Jalandhar, same as Jalandhara 46n
Jalandhara, city and territory 183 and
n, 260

Jalandhara-giri, hill 18311
Jalandhra, same as Jalandhara 78
Jala Ocean i7n
Jalaon District 305
Jala-j^la, same as Jalandhara-giri
183 and n

Jal-Dhaka, locality 30 in
Jalpaiguri, locality 160; District 104
Jalpesvara, deity 104
Jambudroni, locality 324
Jambu-dvipa 3, 6, 8, 9 and n, 17-18,
19 and n, 20, 21 and n, 22, 24 n,
77, 314 and n, 315-^173 328-29
Jambula, river 55n
Jambu-nadi 276
Jamui, territory 308

Jamuna, same as Yamuna, river 90,
122, 254, 303, 305 and n
Janakpur, locality 20, 37n, 323
Janamejaya, Kaurava king I29n
Janamejaya, Somavami^ king 178
janapada 28, 30-31, yon, 186, 212
fanapdlay designation 293n
Janardana, deity 81, 92
Janasthana, locality 32, 327
Jangala, territory 30, 35n, 105, 261
Jangala-Jharikhanda, country 90
Jannu-patha, locality 72n
Jamuka* people sSn
Jarasandha, mythical king 115
Jaripata, locality 245
Jarjara-nadi 324
Jarna, people 36n

J arret, author 34n, 37n, 42n, i03n,

i 04 n, i 32 n
J^tika, people 238

362

Ql^OGtLAB:^ OF ANGIEOT" ATSTD JMEBIEVaI. INDIA

Jarudhi, mouniain xSn
Jashwarltpur, territory 240
mta^hhumi 232
jdta-nagara 233
Jatesvara, deity 84, 104
Jathara^ mountain iSn
Jat, people 238
Jattaraur, wrong text 241
Jaugada, locality 167
Jaun, river 5111, 5211, 306-07
Java, country 73 and n, 322
Jaxartes, river 24-25, 67n
Jayachandra 19511
Jayadatta, ojjicer 275
Jayadeva, king Nepal 165
Jayaganga, stream 324
Jayamangald^ commentry 207
Jayananda, poet 221
Jayap^a, Sdhi king 142, 290-92
Jayaprakkra, fort 323
Jayasiiiilia (Zeyatheinkha), king 320
jaya-^skandhdvdra 12c, 135 n, 248
Jayaswal, K. P. 185
Jayavardhanapura, city 324
Jayavarman II, king 320
Jayavarman V, king 321
Jayendranagari, city 321
Jejabhukti, territory 260
Jctavan-^ama, monastery 324
Jha, G. N. 175
Jhang District 69n, 119
Jhansi District 114
Jh^lkhanda-desa 122
Jhclam, jiielum, river 33n, 34n, 36n,
49n, 5in, 52n, loi, 113, 204, 230,
290; District 34n, loi, no
Jndndrnxiva Tantra 183 and n
Jneyamallaka, people syn
Jodhpur, city and territory 97, 240-42
Jogbani, locality 279
Johiyabar, territory 37
Joshimath, locality 35n
Jougies 224n
Juhuda, people 35n
Jumna, same as Yamuna, river 49n,
53n, 55n, 56n, 57n
Junagarh, Junagadh, locality 333 j
inscription 192, 228
Junayd, governor of Sindh 209
Jurz, same as Gurjara 144 and n, 145,

239-40

Justin, author 230-31
Juzr, same as Gurjara 142, 239-40
Jv^amukhi, holy place no
Jyesthapura, city 320
Jyotirlihga 12, 94

Kaaba 103

Kab\d, city ^in, 195, 198, 230-31,

291-92, 29311, 298,30m; river
6 gn

Kabuli, ^of KdbuP 139
‘Kabul-Shah’ 293n
kaccha 74n, 112

Kacch, Kaccha, country 52n, 78, 86n,
1 11-12

Kaccha-desa 86
Kaccha-mandala 260
Kacchapa, territory 100, in-12
Kacchika, people 42 n
Kacchiya* people 42 and n

Kachar, territory lOo, in -12
Kadamba, royal family 165-66, 188,

1 90-9 1 > 245-46; Early 263n; of Gob.
109

Kadambari^ work 9, 206
Kadaram, same as Kataha 322
‘Kadi% group of countries ySn
Kadira Sabi, ruler 306
Kafiristan, territory 105, 203, 205
Kafiristan-Kandahar region 203, 205
Kahnura, same as Krsna SOQn
Kaikata, people 78

Kaikaya, East Indian territory 85, 109
Kaikeya, people 33* and n, 34n
Kaikeyya, same as Kaikeya 34n
Kailanara, wrong text 84n
Kailan copper-plate inscription
I 5 > i 49 » 152, 15^

Kailasa, mountain ii and n, 13, it;.

i 8n, 104, 319
Kailasa-giri 84, 1 04
Kailasa-tira 84 n
Kaira, city and territory 207, 209
Kaithal-Gaur, community i agn
Kaiyata, grammarian 265
Kaj, river 52n

Kajahgala, locality 159-60, 2i4n, 333
Kakan, locality 308-09
Kakanda, sage 308
Kakandi, locality 308 and n, 309
Kakandinagari, locality 30B and 309
Kakatiya, royal family 29, 95
Kakka, Rastyakuta viceroy 208
Kakka II, Ragtrakfita chief
Kaksa-visaya 248-49
Kala, sea 2 in, 22
Kala-Bhairava, deity 107
Kalacuri, royal family 4 in, 108, 208,
258 and n, 333

Kalacurya, same wt EUalacuri 132
Kalahayuihjaya, wrong text 261
K^aka-vana 213, 333
Kalamjara, K^anjara yin, 147, 261,
305 and n, 337

Kalapagrama, locality 70 and n
Kalapriya locality 303-06, 312
Kalapriyanatha, deity 304, 305n, 306

lNDE:t

363

Kalapriya-pattana 306
iCalasapura, locality 319
Kalasigrama, locality 233 and n, 234
Kalasvana river 6on
Kalat, territory 32, 34n
Kalatoyaka, people 32, dgn
Kaiavana, people 4on
Kalavapi, tank 324
Kale^a, deity 337n, 339 and n
Kale^vara, deity 81, 85n, 93, 107
Kalhana, author 93, 195, 204nj 262n>
290-93 > 300, 337 n
Kali, goddess 26 in
Kali age 27
KlaJibala, people 4on
Kalidara, people *jin
Kalidasa 6, 47n, 5 in, 159, i6in,
171-73J 1^2, 200, 217-18, 229,
234^ 250, 266, 270
KLalika, people 68II1
K^ika, goddess 82, 97
K^ka, river 339 and n
Kalika-muklia 88

Kdlika Purdna 93, 161-62, 164, 182
Kalikata, same as Calcutta, city isgn
Kalika^, people 4011
KaUiiiga, same as Kalinga, country 95
KaliAga-de^a, same as Kalinga Bi
Kali-nadi 49n, 5 1 n
Kalinda, Kllindagatika, people 7 in
Kalindi, river 48n, 147
Kalindri, river 120
Kalinga, country eaxd people 7>30-3r,33n,
39n, 4in, 46n, 78, 91, 94 - 95 ? I 59 >
165, 167-68, iGgn, 170, 171 and n,
172, 174, 175 and n, 177, 214,

216-17, 219 and n, 22on, 255n,

322, 332 and n, 333, 336; country
91, 169, 187, 189, 336; Soum-
Western 167

Kalinga, territory 78, 81
JCaling-ddhipatii title 167, 169-70,

175

Kalinganagara, city 169-71, 175,

179-80, 332

Kalinga, covMry 78, 91, 22on, 334,

Z%^\Jorest 336, 338
Kalingapatam, locality 6in
Kalingattuparaniy work 192
Kaliiijara, locality 337
Kalisindh, Kali Sind, river 53n, 57n,
339

Kali taka, people 4.0TI
Kalka, locality 339
Kallar, mistake Jor JLalliya 291
Kailiena, port 227
Kalmasapada, king 273
K^odara, pe^le 71 and n
kalpa 47n

Kalpadrukoia^ work i33n

Kalpanivasin, people 47n
KalpI, locality 305-06
Kaltis, gold coin 216
Kalyan, same as Klalyana 227
Klalyana, port 10, igin, 227, 333
Kalyanapura, city 92
Kalyani, locality 324
Kalyanpur, locality 43n
Kama, country 108 and n, no
Kamadri, hill 86, no
Kamagiri, hill 85, 107-08, 183
Kamakhya, deity 88-89, 93 > 162-63,
i83n; hill 93, 116
Kamala, deity 88
Kamaluka, king 292
Kaman, locality io8n
Kamarupa, country 7, 13, 46 and n,
78,81, 84, 86, 93? 1 03, 105, 109, in,
n2n, 124, 143,145-46, 160 and n,
162-66, 177, 183 and n, 200, 260,
326

KLamarupa-Kamagiri 183
Kamarupa-niv^n, p^le 46
Kamar pi language 127
Kamarupini, wrong text i83n
Kdmasutray work go^gi, 94, 98, no,
113, i69n, 188, 192, 207, 2^n
Kanxauli copper-plate inscription

257n

Kambenkon, stream 215
Elamboja, people and country 150-52,
195-200, 231, 320
Kamboja, people 196
Kamboja province

Kamboja^ same as Kamboja 34 and n,
78, 83, 99, 100-02, 104, 150, 202-
03, 261, 319-20
K^boja-de;^ 84, 202, 204-05
Kamboja-Gandhma 196
Kambuja, country 3i7n, 318, 320-21
Kambupuri, city 321
Kambuva, name of watch-station 300-01
Kambyson, stream 215, 217-18
Kamcipura, city and territory 89, ndo
Kamkar, wrong text 144
KamlCt Ray, king 292
Kampil, locality 30, 99, 2i4n
K^piJya, city 30, 99, 201, 2i3n, 2j:4n
Kamrud, same as Kamarupa 153
Kamru mountains 1 1 2n
Kamrup, same as Kamarupa 153
Kamta, territory 149
Kamtipura, territory 260
Kanakkvali, mythical territory 23
Kanakavalivara, n^thiccd territory 23
Kanakavalivaravabhasa, rrtythicaL
territory 23

Kanara (North) District n, 39n,
4on, 92, 116, 188, 190; {South)
District 92, 98* 109

364

Kanarese — area io8; kings 96; powers
192,^ 246
Kanari-Iipi 1 27

Kanauj, city 5011, 108, 127, 141, 14411,
14511, 15511, 1775 206, 240, 290,
292, 303-04, 305 and n, 306-07
Kanavapi, tank 324
Kancana^ same cu Kancanaka 23
Kancan-“dri 162

Kancanaka, mythical territory 23
Kanchenjunga, Himalayan peak 162
Kanci, city 1 and n, 2, 282; territory
306, 316

Kanci-pitha, holy place 1 1 7
Kancipura, city 116-17. 315, 336
Kancipuram, same as Kancipura 1 1 7
KMcivara, same as Kancipura 315
Kandahar, city 32, 34n, 100, 230-31,

289, 311; inscriptions 1 98-99 ;
region 33n, 203, 205

Kandara, Kandara, same as Krsna

309

Kandarapura, city 309
Kandhahara, same as Kandahar 289
Kandhar, town 306, 312
Kandhara, Kandhara, same as Krsna

290, 309^ 311-12

Kandharapura, Kandharapura, ci^
310-11

Kane, P* V. 282n, 283n, 286 n
Kangra District sGn, 5on
Kanhara, Kanhara, same as Krsna

Kanheri, locality 229; inscription 227n
Kanik, same as Kaniska 291
Kaniska, Ku§dna king 291; era 182
Kahjagiri, hill 162

Kanjivara, same as Kancipura 315
Kankatori, river 93
Kankjol, locality 2i4n
Kannada, language and territory 16,
76, 94, 96, 1 2b, 169, 247, 257, 263
Kannadiga, people 129, 190, 19 in;

empire 190, 192

Kaimara, Kannara, same as Krsna

309

Kanoj, city 52n, 241, 306-07
Kansai, same as Kasai, river 65n
Kanta, stream 163
Kantaka, locality 86n
Kantakapattana, locality 105, 122
Kanthaka, locality 86 and n, 113
Kanthakara, people 33n
Kantideva, king 156
Kantiko^ala, zmong text 31
Ktoya, people 47n

Kanyakubja, Kanyakubja, city 16,
95, 129, 201, 259, 263, 304n;

country 95

Kanyakumari inscription 191

Kanya-nivasin, people 47n
Kapila, Kapila-muni, sage 222 and
n, 223-24, 3^3-14
Kapilapura, locality 314
Kapila, river 298
Kapila, people sgn
Kapilavastu, wrong text 314 and n
Kapilavastu , locali ty 314
Kapilavatthu, same uk Kapilavastu
264, 313 and n, 314
Kapila, river 65n, 159, 173, 217

Kapisa, country 5 in, 293
Kara, locality 1 55
Karachi, city 94
Karakuksxya, people 30
Karakutsiya, people 30
Kara-Manikpur, territory 155
Karamna^a, river 55n
Karamoda, river 55 and n
Karaskara, Karaskara, people 41 and
n, 219

Karatoya, river son, 5 in, 55n, sSn,
dsn, 84 and n, 93, 102, 161-62
Kardamaka, Saka clan 227 and n,
228-29

Karhad copper-plate incsription 1 1 ,
305n, 312

Karimnagar District 262 n
Kari-pati 88n
Karkal, locality 41 n
Karle, locality 229
Karmamarga, people 35n
Karmanta, locality 149-50
Karmdntapala^ officer 149
Kama, epic hero 6-7, 195
Karna, Kalacuri king 4 in, 140
Kama, same as Kannara 309
Kamal District 201-02, 204, 337

Karnal-Ambala region 99, 201-02,
204

Karnal region 201 02, 204
Karnaphuli, river i^Bn
Karnapravarana, people 45 and n,
74 and n

Karnasuvarna, city 105, 1 1 9-2 1 , 1 24,
177, 216

Karnata, people and country 16, 76,

78,82,93-94, 96, 12^, 128 and

n, 144, 170, 190, 191 Wd n, 192
246-47, 261, 271
Karnata-de^a 82, 170
Karnataka, same as Karnata 7, 76,
96, I gin, 247 and n
Karnatiya, people 336
Karsapana, com 263n
Karttikeya, god 222 and n
Karttikeya-kunda, holy pool 278
Karusa, Karusa, Karusa, Karusa
Karusa, country and people 30, 34
and n, 3gn, 42n, 33 ^ 2 - 35 ; 338

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

365

and n, 341 and n; desa 332n; forest

338

Karusaka, forest 335
Klarvata, people 78
Kasai, river Ssn, 159, 173, 217
Kasenlka, people 35n
Kaserumat, territory 5n, 22n

Kashmir^ country 34n5 45n, 7on, 72n,
93, 127, 195, 198, 204, 262n,

290, 292, 300-01, 337; chronicle
300; Northern 3411; North-Western
35n, 4'5n; Southern 202-04
Kashmirian 204; author 291-92;
general 292

Kashyap, J. 253, 255n
Kail, people 31, 70, 22on, 232, 255
and n, 282

Kasia, locality 38n, 313
Kasijoda, village i
Kdsikd, work 62x1 ^ 267
Kdfikdvrttij work 267
Kaii-Kosala, region 232
Kasiputra-Bhagabhadra, king 266
Kasmira, same as Kasmira 232
Kaimira, country add people 35 and n,
42n, 68 and n, 78 and n, 81, 84,
93, 103, 1 16, 260
Kasturva, people
Kasyapa-Buddha 254
Kaiyapapura, locality 520
Kataha, city and territory 22n, 322;
dvlpa 322

Kataka, same as Cuttack 179-81
Katas, locality no
Kathaioi tribe 113
Kathaksara, people 4 in
Kathdsari sdgara^ work 90
Kathiawar, territory 31, 94-955 ii4n,
115-16, 197, 208-09, 225-26, 228,

260, 273, 324, 339; Southern 4211,
98, 333; Western 337
Katihar-Jogbani branch railway 279
Katwa, locality 122
Katyayani, goddess 183 and n
Katyayani-Siva, goddess 183
Kaumkana, same as Konkana,
country 260

Kaundinyapura, city 188
Kaurava, clan 30, 78
Kausa, same as Kanyakubja, city 304n
Kausambi, city 254, 272, 323
Kausika 30, Von, 161, 34on
Kaustka 172

Kausikt 48n, 50 and n, 5 in, 64n,
278-80, 340

Kausiki-Koka, confluence 278
Kautiliya-ArthaJdstra 5, 123, 332
Kautilya, author 233
Kavala, village 252

Kavera, people 39 and n
Kaveri, river sgn, 53n, 59, 59n, 63n,
64n, 65n, 96, 315-16, 322, 34^^;
city 315-18

Kaveri-nagara, locality 315
Kaverip 1 k, locality 315
Kaveripatam, locality 315
Kaveripur, locality 315
Kavini, river 52n
Kavtkankojm title 221
Kavi-pati 88 n
Kdpyhdarsa, work 125, 186
Kdvyamlmdmsd, work 5, 26, 80, 192,
209 and n, 214, 263n, 303
Kdtya<ik$d^ work 263
Kawali, milage 252
Kawana, river 5 in
Kayabish, territory 5 in, 52n^

Kayal, locality 243
Kayastha, community agSn
Kayath, same as Klayastha 129a
Kedah, locality 322
Kedara, holy place ii, 13
Keith, A.B. 28, 125, ibgn
Kekara, people 71 and n
Keka a, people 33n
Kekaya, people and country 33n, 34n,
78, 109; coimiry 109
Ken, river 55, 5611
Kerala, people and country 38 and n,
4in, 42n, 7in, 78 and n, 8in, 91-
92, 95> 185, 229 and n, 234, 266;
country 81, 92

Keralaka, same as Kerala 271
Keralaputra, title 229
Keralesvara, deity 81 n
Kerobothra, Greek from of Kerala-
put^'a 229 n
Kesapa, people 34n
Kesari, same as Somavamsi 180
Kesava, author i33n
Kesavadeva alias Govinda, king 164
Kesavasena, wrong reading 15711
Kesav Sinha, person 251
Ketiimala, 18, 20, 21 and n, 6411
Kevala, people 38n
Khaberos, Greek form of Kaveri 5912
Khadavada inscription 306
Khadga dynasty 149
Khairagarh, locality 43n
khdjdnd isgn
khajdnah 139

Khajuraho, locality i, 147, 260; ins-
cription 147

Khakka, tribe 45n, 70n

Khalimpur plate 162

Khallikot, territory 1 74

Khan, title 306

Khan, F.A* i58n

Khandesh, territory ixi^ 193, 339

366

GEOORAPHV OF AMOIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Kharagraha I, king 208
Kharapatlia, pass 72 and n
Kharavela, king of Kalinga, gi, 167
Kharaz, wron^ reading 239
Khare, G. H. 194
Kliarosth", alphabet 27-28, rgq
Khasa, people 45 and n, 70 and n
Kliatmandu, city 279-80
Khazar, tribe 239
KhclliiSa, people 43n
Klieta, Khetoka, city 207, 209
Kheiaka, people 33n
Khetas, locality no
Elhiching, locality 1760, 194
Khijjinga. city iy 6 n, 194
Khira, Khir-nai riuer 150
Khitta-i-Lakhnauti, territory I58n
Khorasan, territory 33n, 102-03, 259,
292

Khorasan-Kabul region 292
Khordadbeh, author 240
Khotan, locality 255n
Khottiga, king 209
Khurasahanaka, territory 259
Khurasan, territory 202
Khurasana, territory 84 and n, 102,
103, 202, 205
Kia-mu-lu, countiy 326
Kielhom, F. i8n, 24n, 246- 265-66
Kikarava, people 43n
Kikata, people Ktid country 85, 90, 107,
287; country 107
Kikata-Magadha 85
Kilata, same as Kirata 78
Kimbila, Kimbila, city 253, 254 and n
Kimila, Kimila, city 253-54
Kimilasutta, text 253
Kimilasutta, text 253
Kimmila, Kimmila, city 253-54
Kimpurusa, people 20-21 and n, 70
and n

Kimpurusa-varsa, mythical territory 2 in
Ednnara, mythical people 69 and n,
200

Kdra^apura, locality 31 1
Kiranti, people 31, 46n
Kirat, river 5111

Kirata, people 29, 31, 35 and n, 46

and n, 66n, 70 and n, 71 and n,
78, 84, III, 160, 162, 164, 200,
232, 271; country 102, 262
Kirata-vijayojaya, wrong text 262
Kirfel, W. 2‘^in, 23n, 30, 3611, 37n,
48, 328x1

Kirkpatrick, author 280
Klirmila, locality 253
Kirpa, wrong text 62n
Kirtinaia, river 299
^rtivarxnan I, 165
Kirvi,^ wrone iexi i=um

Kisadya, people 31
Kisalva, people 31
Kisanna, people 3 1
Kishenganga, river 34n, 93
Kiskindha, territory 43, 308, 327
Kiskindhaka, people 43 and n
Kitdb Futuh al BulddUy work 209
Kiu-che-lo, country 240
Kiu-kia-t’o-na, locality 265
Kiul, locality 62n, 249
Kleisobora, Greek form of Krsnapura
109

Kling, name for India 322
Koa, riinr 5on
Koch, people 152
Kodagu, territory 40
Koel, river dan
Koka, river 277-80
Koka-kola, river 280
Kokamukha, holy place 275-81
Kokamukhasvamin, deity 275 and n,
276, 28 in
Koka-nadi 277
Kokkonagai, people 187
Kolagallu inscription 294, 295n
Kolaka, locality 231
Kolanca, Kolahca, locality 297
Kola-pattana, locality 24, 32
Kolapura, city 4on, 82, 93-94
Kolapura-nivasini, goddess 82, 93-94
Kolavana, people 40 and n
Kole^vara, deity 8 in
Kolhapur, city 4on, 59n, 94, 187, 226n
Kollam, locality 38n
Kollur 96

Komkana, see Kohka^ia 78, 82, 83n,
85 and n, 271
Kondapur, locality 245-46
Kiiidavati, territory 257
Kongoda, territoiy 169, 177-78
Kohkan, country 39n, 98, 109, 260;
J^orthe n 95-96, 189, 225, 227-28,

234-35? 274 n

Kohkana, same as Kohkani 94, 98,108

Kopa, river 62n

Kopii, river 117

Kophen, Kophes, river 5on

Kora-Jahanabad, territory 155

Korea, country 2ii

Korkai, locality 243

Korosh, river 21 1

Kosala people and country I2n, 4 in,
43n, 165, 185, 232, 254 and n,

255n, 262, 264, 27on, 335; country
255, 335; Dak^ica 168; North 261 ;
Souh 185, 335

KoSala, same as Kosala 30-31, 43 and n,
78, 106, 22on, 261, 270 and n, 297
Kosam, locality 254, 323
Kosamb!, cily 264

INDEX

367

Koslj riv€r son, i6i^ 279, 340-41
KoteSvara, deity 109
Kotesvara Mahadeva, deity log
Kotikarnay person 268, 273
Kotisa, deity 109

Kotivar§a 160, 246115 275-76, 280,

28 in, 295; District 275; lisaya
275.76, 280, 28111, 295

Kotivata, holy spot 278
Kousi, some as Kosi, river 280
Kra, isthmus 7211
Krama, Krama, river 5611
ICramavarta, territory 300-01
Kramu, river 56, 5711
Kraufica, n^ihical region 17 and n,
24n

Klrauncavara, mythical region 23
Krimi, river 6in

Krimila, Krimila, locality 250, 252-
54 j vi^aya 252
Krishna, river 4on
Kri^^, river 54 and n
Kmai, prince 251 -53
Krmi, queen 252-53
Krtnila, Kpnila, same Klrimila
248, 250-54, 255n,

Krmilapnri, city 252-53
Krmila-visaya, territoiy 249, 252
KrodaSica, locality 297
Klrodafija, Krodanji, locality 297-98
Krpa; river 62n
Krsa, river 62n
Krsna, Tddava hero 115, 309
Krsna I, Rastrakuta king 31 1
Krfna II, Rastrakuta king 3 1 1
Krsna III, Rastrakuta king 305-06,
310-12

Krsna, river 14, 59 and n, 81, 91,
167-68, iqs, 247
Krsnabena river 103
Krsna^andra, chief in
Krsnadevaraja, kine 12
Krsna-Kandhara, king 309-10
Krsnananda Agamavagisa, author
76, 183

Krsnapura, city 1 09-11
Krspa, people 47n
Krsnasikharin, locality 1 5 1

Krsna-tira 81

Krsnaveni, same as Krsna 59n5 640
Kr^navenva, same as Krsi^ia 590, 65n
Krsnavenya, Krsnavenya, same as
Krsna 59n, 64 and n
Krsneivara, deity 312
Krta era 206

Kiiamala, river 60 and n, 64 and n,

243. 325

K^tavirya. Haihaya hero 44n
Kiixaka, people 45n
K^iv^sa, author 120

KrtyakalapatarUy work 185
Krura, people 6911
Ksaharata, clan 226-27
Ksama, river 5-4 n
Ksatodara, people 34n
Ksatr, people 34n5 35 and n
Ksatriya, people 34 and n,
Ksatriy-opanivesa 34n
Ksatriy-epanivesya 34n
Ksaudravara-dvipa, mythical territory
22

Ksaudra -water Ocean 22
Ksemagupta, king 292
K^jemendra, Kashmirian polymath 204,
328

KsetrasamcLm, work 329
Ksipra, river 57n, 62n
Ksipta, rwer 57n
Ksira Ocean 2 in, 22

Ksirasvamin, author 267, 331

Ksiravara-dvJpa, mythical territory 22

Ksira-water Ocean 22

Ksirika, holy place 184

Ksiroda, rimr 150-52

Ksudra, Ksudraka, people 32n5 205

Ksetpana, people 45n

Kubata, people dgn

Kubera, gerd 331 and n, 340 and n

Kubha, river 5on

Kudalur, locality 245

Kudatini inscription 294, 295 and n,

297

Kugatha, people Ggn
Kuhika, people 36n
Kuhu, river 48n5 49 and n, 5on, 5 in,
65n, 68, 69n; people Sgn
Kuhuka, people 36n
Kuki, tribe 109
Kukkunuru, territory 259n
Kukkuta, people 36n
Kuknur, village 258-59
Kukura, people and territory 67 and n,

271-73

Kukur-Aparanta, region 273
KuUacalay class of moimtains 243-44
Kulait region 31

Kula-parvatOy same as Kul^dcala 620,

243-44 > 322, 325

Kulaputra 276

Kulina-Brahmana 298

Kulinda, people 33n

Kuliya, people 41 n

Knlliika-bhatta, author 294 and n

Kulu, territory 33n, 36n

Kuluta, people 36 and n

Kulya, people 31, 38 and n

ktdyavSpa, land measure 275 and n, 276

Kumana, people 38n

Kiamaon, territory 108, 2780; Ai/ir 4911

368

INDEX

Kumara terriioyy 2211
Kumara, Northern people 7 in
Kumara, Southern people 38 and n, sgn
Kumara, river 64x1
Kumarada, people 39n
Kumara-dvTpa, territory 29, 3911
Kumaragupta I, king 4
Kumarapala, Caulvkya king 263
Kumdrasamhhavay work 2 ’lO
Kumaravarman, king 1 7731
Kumar i, territory 22n
Kumari, river 62 and n
Kumar! , wrong text 2i3n
Kumari, ^ame as Gape Comorin 2i3n
Kumari, Virgin representing Durga26in
Kumari-dvipa territory 5n, 29, 219, 325
Kumarika, same as Gape Comorin 22n
Kumarika-klianda 25 gn
Kumaripura, same as Gape Comorin
5 anci n

Kumaravisnu, Pallava king 8
Kuihkum-adri, hi I 81
Kumuda. elephant 331 and n. 332 and
n, 339 and n

Kumudvati, river 58 and n
Kuna, people 470
Kun^a, people 38 n
Kundakera, people 4.4x1
Kundala, mythical territory 23
Kundala, people 30
Kundala, people 4on
Kundalavara, mythical territory 23
Kundalavaravabhasa, mythical terri-
tory 23

Kundina, city i88
Kunet, tribe 33n
Kunhan Raja 243n, 244

Kuninda, people 33 and n, 67 and n
Kunkum-adri, hill 93
kunknma^ ^saffron^ 93
Kuntala, people and country 31, 40 and
n, 108, 188, 191, 246
Kuntalar 192

Kuntapravarana, people 45n
Kunti, people 30-31
Kunti, river 54 and n
Kxmti-Bhoja, people 54n
Kupa, Kupa, river 62 and n
Kupatha, pe^le 3811, 39n, 45n, Ggn,
72 and n
Kuraha, locality 307
Kurm-acala, same as Kumaon 278n
Kurma-prastha 80, 87-88, 114, 116

Kurma Purwm 6, 26, i24n, 220, 243,
284n

JC urma^vibkaga 29
Kumool District 336

and cauniry 18-20, 2 in,
30-31, 45 and n, 70 and n, 130;
3O5, no, 202-03, 339-40;

k^etra 490, 83, 86, 98-99, no, 201-
02, 204, 239, 303 and n, 337;
deJa 86, 202, 204, ^621 jdngala
339 and n

Kurumina, people 41 n
Kuru-Pancala, people 46 and n
Kuruspal, inscription 262
Kusa, Iksvaku prince 270
Kusa, territory 25n
Kusa-dvipa, mythical territory 17 and
n, 24n, 25
kuda grass 3050
KuiSalya, people 30
Kusana, clan 200, 285, 291
Kusapravarana, people 450, 73n
Ku^asthala, city 304n, 305 and n
Kusasthali, ar Dvataka, city 339
and n

Kusasthali, city in the Deccan 27on

Kusavara, mythical territory 23

Kusavati, city 270 n

Kuseruka, people 35n

Kush, country 25 and n

Kusi, river 279

Kushiya, people of Kush 25

Kusika, people ‘ji and n

Kulinagara, city 38n, 313

Kusinara, city 264

Kusinara-vihara 324

Kusiyara, rii'er 16 1

Kusidra, people 30

Kusuma, people 38n

Kusumapura, city 319

Kutch, territory 42n, 111-13, 228

Kuthapravarana people 45n, 73 and n

Kuti, locality 320-21

Kutya, people 38n

Kyanzittha, king 319

Lada, same as Lata 260
Lefmann, S. 3i4n
Laga Turman, king 291
Laghman, locality 35n, 293
Laghu-Kaurhkana, territory 260
Lahore, czty 5 in, 260, 291, 324
Lajja, river 56, 56n
Lakhisarai railway station 89
Lakhmania, king 1 53-1 54
Lakhnauti, city 1 18, 13 in, 134, 137
and n, 153-54. I 57 . 15S and n
Lakhya, river 163, 165
Laksa, river 163
Laksmadeva, king 7
Laksmapa, Iksvaku hero 327
Lak^mai^araja, king 140
Laksxna];^asena, king 118, 152-54, 156-
57. =86, 301

Laksmajgiavati, city 118, i58n
Lak^ml, goddess xx and n

INDEX

369

Laksmidhara, author 185
Lala, same as Radha 129, 170

Lalambi-vana 150-52
Lalgolaghat, locality 279
Lalita, people 3311
Lalita, 89
Lalita, stream 1 63
Lalitaditya, king 292-93
Lalitakanta, rivef 162-63
Lalitax istara, work 127, 314
Lalliya, king 290-93
Lalmai Jhills 152
Lama Taranatha, author 4211
Lambaga, town 5111
Lambakama, people 83, 99
Lamghan, territory 5111, 290
Larhka-pradesa 87
Lampaka, people aad territory 35 and
n, 5 in, 68 and n, 293
Lamphun, lo-'ality 323n
Langalinz, river 6 in
Langulini, river 61 and n
LanguHya, river 6in
Lanka, territory and city 9, 114, 170,
261-62, 271, 3i6n, 324, 327; deia,
pradeia 114, 262; dvipa 315, 3i6n
Lankagiri-parvata 3i6n
Lankanagara, town 3 x6a
Lankapura. town 3 1 6n
Lankapuxi, town no
Lankatala, locality 316m
Laos, territory 320
Lari, alphabet 127

Larika, Larike, same as Lata 225-26,
227 and n, 229
Lassen 195, 225

Lata, country 78, 113, 129, 225-26, 228-
29, 231, 256, 260, 27411; people 1 13,
127, 207-08
Lata-desa 86, 263
Later Gupta dynasty 207-08
Later Kadamba dynasty 188
Later Pala dynasty 119
Lattalur, Lattalura, city 310-11
Lattanur, same as Lattalur 310
Latur, same as Lattalur 310
Lauhitya same as Brahmaputra, river
10 and n, 13, 48, 5m, 65n, 123,

i6in, 165, 200, 236, 337, 341 and
n; valley 164

Lava, Iksvdku prince 270 and n
Lavana Ocean 17 and n, 20, 21 and
n, 66n, 73 and n
Lavana-water Ocean 21
Lavangasika, locality 276
Lavapura, Lavapurl, city 324
Law, B. G. 212, 308, and n, 3i4n
Legge, J. 286n
Lekhapaddhatiy work 1140
L6vi, Sylvain 33n, 72, 77n, i82n.

233 and n 234, 264n
Lewis, G.A* 30, 95
Likhita, author 284n
linga 275

Linga-parvata 320
Lingodbhava-de^a 261
Little Bear 330
Little Port 136
Liverpool, city i36n
Lohaghat, locality 278n
Lohajarhgha, people 41 n
Lohapura, city 260
Loharani, city 52n

Lohargala, holy place 277, 278 and n
Lohita, Lohita, river 5 in
Lohit District 1 63n
Lohitya, river 5m, 16 in, 334; sea 334
Lokapalay deity 277
Lokaprakdiay work 328-29
Lokavigraha, king 174-77
London, city 279-80, agSn
Lop-buri, city and territory 324
Loricol, locality 158
Lower Indus 1 13-14; valley 233-34
Luckeesarai, locality 24.9, 25on, 251
Ltiders, Lueders i82n, 227n, 272n

Lumbini-grama, Lumbini-vana, locality
312, 313 and n
Lupa, river 53n
Lupi, river 53 and n
Lymirike, territory 229

Macedon, territory 205
Macheen, country io4n
Macipura, country 260
Modal dpaniiy work 169, 179-80
Madanapala, king 250-51, 256
IVLadanpada copper-plate inscription

157

Madgurava, people 36n
Madgumka,j&^<?/iZ^ 36 n
Madhasalmali, locality 162
Madhava, deity 221, 222 and n,
223-24

Madhava, king 222 and n
Madhavavarman II, king 244
Madhraka, people 33n
Madhukamarnava, king 1 70
Madhukamava, prince 170
madhuparka 276
Madhusudana, chief 157
Madhva, religious teacher 92
Madhyadesa, territory 29-31, 37, 38n,
46 and n, 80, 213 and n, 214 n, 269
n, 269 n, 297
Madhyamika, city 32
Madhya Pradesh 4 in, 43 n, 54n,
57n, 62n, 106, 186, 205, 21 1, 261,
263, 325

370

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND 3V1EDIEVAL INDIA

MadI, river 53n

Madra, country and people 47n, 78,113,
203, 205, 238; deia 78n, 86;

mandala 244

Madra in Eist India, wrong text 37 n
Madra, river 57n,

Madraka, same as Madra 33, 165-66,
238

Madrakara, people 30, 47
Madrarama, people 47 and n
Madras, city and territory sSn, 6on, 96,
1 17, 244, 306, 33S

Madresa, deity 86n
Madrcsl, female deity 86n
Madrika, wrong text 86n
MadriSa, wrong text 86
Madurai, city 380, 6on, 243, 317;
District 38n, 96

Maga, community 25n; Brdhmana 0.3x1
Magadha, country and people 27, 31,
38 and n, 46 and n 70 and n, 78,
85, 86 and n, 106-07, 109, 163,
166, 171, 213-14, 217, 219 and n,
22on, 254, 255n, 262, 264

Magadha-de^a 107, 262
Magadha, same as Magadha, SSn,

78, 85 _

Magadha -lipi 127

Magadhapura, Magadhapura, city 137
Magadhi, dialect 27
Maghada, wrong text 85n
Magh pirates 221
Magi priests 25n
I/dahdbhdn dagdra 2 9 1 n
Afahdbhdnddgdrika. officer 292
Mahdbhdrata, work sn, 6n, i8n, 26,
57n, 91, 104, no, 160, 163, 165,

168 and n, 171-72, i75n, 189,

192, 195-9^? 216, 219, 22on, 237,

238 and n, 245, 277, 280, 283-85
Mahdbhdsya^ work 17, 24n, 73, i99n,

265-66

Mahabhavagupta I, king 178
Mahabodhi, holy place 219, 282n;
temple 320

Mahabhtitavarman, king 161-62
Mahacina, country 78, 84, 104 and n
Mahadeva, god 87, 223
mahddvipa gn, 18, 19 and n
mahadvddasaka 263
Mahagauri, river 58 and n
mahdjanapada 197
Mahakala, deity 97, 21 1
Mahakalesvara, deity 304, 305n
Mahak^a, people 30
Mahakosala, country 85, 106
Mahakuta pillar inscription 165-66
Mahalak^mi, goddess 94
Mahalaksmipura, town 184
Mahall 300

Adakdmdyurt^ work 264
Mahamleccha, community 84, 101-03
Mahanada, river 34x1
Mahanadi, name of rivers 54 and n,
55n,56n, 57n, 6on, 62n,64,65n,66n,
90-91, 168, 178-179, 189, 335

Mahananda, river 120, 161
Mahanara, village 52n
Mahdniddesa^ work 264
Mahanti, A.B. idgn, 179, i8on
Mahdpratihdra^ designation 29 in, 292
Mahapuri, city 85, 106
Alahdrdjay title 176, 275
AlaharaJadhiraja^ title i, 241, 248
Maharashtra 16, sgn, 4on, 41 n, 76,
78, 82, 93-95. III. 128, 190, 210,
226, 227 and n, 306, 310-11, 333;
people 39 and n
mahdrdstra 258
makdsddhana 292n
Adahdsddhanika^ designation 292
Mahasaka, people sgn
Mahasala, locality 2i4n
mahdsandhivigraha 291 n,
Makdsdndkivigrahika, designation 292
Mahasenagupta, king 16 in
Mahasivagupta, king 257n
Mahasivagupta Yayati 1 , king 178,180
Mahasthan, locality 37n, 160, 2i4n,

333 ? inscription 160
mahdsvaidld 29 in
JMakdsvaMlika, dengnation 292
Mahati, river 53n

Adahdi'agga, work 2i4n, 253n, 25 5n,
269, 288n

Alahdvarhm, work 171, 198 and n, 21 1,

31^

Mahavideha, mythical territory 21
Mahavita, prince 22x1
Mahavita-varsa, mythical territory 22x1
Mahbubnagar District 96
‘Mahdeb’, same as Madhava or
Mahadeva 223

Mahendra, mountain 10 emd 13-14,
61 and n, 64 and n, 159, 167, 184,
236

Alahendrandtha, title 159
Mahendrapala IT, kmg 305 n
Mahendra-parvata 321
Mahendra tanaya, river 61 and n
Mahesvar, locality 3jn
Mahe^vara-kunda, holy pool 278
Maheivarl, goddess 84 and n,85 and n
Maheshwar, same as Maheivar 97, 190
Maheya, people 42 and n
Mihi, river 53 and n, 113, 207, 226,
274; valley 42x1, 208-09, 274n
Mahipala I, Fdla king 13, 156
Mahipala, Fratihana king 41 n, 305n,
3o6n

INDEX

371

Mahisa, clan 244-47; country 246-47
Mahisaka, Mahi^raka, people 39 and n
Mahisaka, territory igi, 245-46
Mahisa-mandala 245
Ma isa-visaya 191, 245-46
Mahisika, people 39n
Mahismati, city 39119 44n5 5711? 80,
97. 189. 2140= 245, 247, 255n, 266,
272

Mahissati, same as Mahismati 264
Mahislr, city 246
Mlhisya^ clan 244-45
Mahisya-visaya 39n
Mahmud j Sultan 292
mahodadhiy ^sed* 5, 74 and n, 84, 222n
Mahodaya, city 300, 303, 304n
Maida, territory 78
Maikal ranece 43n, 57n- 338
Mainamati hills 150, 158 and n
Maindika, people 4011
Maithila, people 16, 129, 222;

Brdhmana 298

Maithilij language 127-28; alphabet
126

Maitraka, dynasty 208
Maitreya, A.K. i6on, 248
Majanaka, territory 260
Majjhimanikdya^ work 196
Majumdar N. G. 134115 15311
Majumdar, R. G. 23n5 72n> 13111,
138, 144 and n, 154, iSon, i64n,
i66n, 228n5 256n, 2970, 3170,

Sign, 32on5 32in, 322n5 324 n
Majumdar Sastri, S. N.735 229n5 23 in
Makka, city 87, 114
Makkesa, deify 102
Makkesvara, deity 88, 116
Makran, territory 102, 202
Makrana, Makruna, Maksana,
Maksuna, mer 56n
Mala people 31 3 380
Pd did, work 331
Malabar, territory 244
Malacca, territory 330
Malada, Malada, people 37 and n,

42n

malai, kiW 6on, 325
Malaka, Malaka, people 31, 47n

Malalasekera, G. P* 3n, i9n, 23n,
iign, i97n, 21 1, 23on, 254, 288n,
3o8n, 3i3n, 3i6n, 325n
Malapa, people 47n
Malaprabha, river 339
Malata, wrong text 78
Mdlatlmddhava, work 304
'idtaXs.v'B., people and country 37n, 42n, 46
and n, 47 and n, 78 and n, 83, 97n,
98 and n, 127, 205-10, 260, 263

M^avaka, territory 208
Maiava-nadi 147

M'lavanagara, ritv 206. 210
Malavanika, Malavarttika, Mala-
varttxka, Malavarttin, Malavar-
tin, 37n

Mdlavewira, title 210
Pddlavi 207

Mdlavikd^nimitra, woik r88, 266
Mala-visaya 260

Malaya, mountain 1 1 and n, 1 2 and n,
I3“i5s 80 and n, 64 and n, 82,

96, 236, 243 andn, 244, 324^8^25
and n, 336; people 47n

Malaya, same as Malaga 46n
Malay- adri 6on, 78, 82, 96, 336
Malayala, country 92, 95
Malayalam, language 3811, 92, 244
Malayan 66n
Malaya^rdja, title 244, 325
Malayasia, territory 322
Malay Peninsula 124, 317, 322
Maida 3 7n, 105, 1 18-10. 122: DiUHct
42n, 105, 120-21
Malda-Rajshahi-Bogra region 122
Malkapuram, locality 258
Malkhed, city 11, igin, 3x0-11
Malla, people 38 and n
Mallaka, people 37
Mallakodara, people 34n
Mallavarnaka, people 37n
Mallavartaka, people 37 and n
Mallikarjuna, god 94; prince 258
Mallinatha, author 7, I33n, 172, i82n,
218, 22qn, 270
Malloi, people 42n, 205
Malwa lo-ii, 14, 42n, 46n, 520, 53n,
57n, 76, 94, 129, 205-06, 208-09,
228, 257, 267, 305n; Eastern 43n,
98, 185 86, 207-09, 283, 333,

338, 338; Western 31, 440, 57n,

97, 98, 1 13, 207-11, 2250, 263,
325. 337, 339

Malwari alphabet 127
Malwa- Kathiawar area 228
Malya, t eople 47n
Malyavad-varsa 2 in
Malyavat, mythical mountain i8n
Mamalakit-i-Lakhnauti, MamMik-
i-Lakhnauti i58n
Mamalik-i-Bang i58n
Mambarus, king 225-27
Maihsada, people 37n
Man, locality 187
Mana, cUn 176-77, 194
Mana, king 245
Mana, Rdstraku a king 187
Manabhumi, territory 176, 194
mdna-citra, ^map^ 326
Manada, p to fie 37n
Mana-desa 194
Manahsila, rrythical territory 23

372

GEOaRAFHV OF ANQIEKT AND MEDIEVAL. INDIA

ManaMilatala, localip 23
Manaftka, king 187-88, 190, 193
MSnapura, city 187, 193
Manasa lake i8n, 103
Manasa, make-goddess 25011
Manasesa, deify 84, 88, 103, 116
Manasodbheda, hofy spot 277
Mdnasolldsa^ work 13411, 333-343 33^3
337 and n, 338
Manavarttika, people 37n
Manbhum, territory 176-77, 194;

District 62n

Manbhum-Singbhum region 176-77
Manda, clasr of elephants 332 and n,
340 and n

Mandaga, river 62 and n
MandaHni, river 540, 55 and^n, 640,
222 and n
Mandala, people 46n
taaridala^ * province* 156-57
Mandala-giri 324
Mandapa, city 210
Mandara, vUkambha-parvata i8n, 23
Mandara, mythical mountain 9, 13,

15I3 236
Mandar hill 221
Mandasor inscription 10
Mandavahini, river 62 and n
Mandavya, people 36n
Mandhata, locality 44n, 57n, 97, IQO,
245

Mandu, dty 210, 306
Mangalakavara, p)eople dyn
Mahgalisa, king 165
Mangalore, city 41 n
Manighapxira, territory 257
Mamkcarvira-rdidr-Gdn 1 35n
Manikpur, locality 155
Manipur, territory log, 323
Mahjxra, river 59n
Mahjula, river 55 and n
Mankad, P.A* 342
Mankatha railway station 249
Mankir, city 1450, 146
Manorama, river 53n
Minorsky, V. 144
Mansarovar, lake 103-04, 116

Manthani inscription 58n
Manu 3n, 14, 490, 106; sm^^ti 140,
no, 175 andn, 200, 214, 294
Manyakheta, city ii, 146, 209, 310
Mdnyakheta-f urava r-ddhuvara , U tie 3 1 1
Mara, territory 317
Marada, people 68x1
Marail, locality 25on
Mara-nadu, territory 317
Maratha, country and people 39n, 76,
943 973 187-88, 190, 194, 262
Marathi-speaking area 93
Marcopolo, cm^dtor 13511, 330

Mareura, locality 319
Margareyaka, wrong text 33711, 338
Margava, people ^*jn
Marjara-tirtha 82, 93
Markanda, river 49n
Mdrkand^a Purdna 5n, 8n, x8n, 2 in,
22n, io2n, i04n, io6n, io8n,
Tiin,243n, I59,i6in, i63n,23in,
243, 27in

Mannaka, people 3011
Marsaka, people 37n
Martyaganga, river 64n
Mam, country 12 and n, 350, 47n, 68
and n, 78, 83 and n, 85-86, 97,100,
ro8, no, 273
Mamdvrdha, river 65n
Mamka, Mamka, people 47 and n
Marut, lokapdla 331 and n
Marwar, territory 12, 35n, 47n, 97
mafyddd-parvata i8n
Maryaka, people 37n
Ma^aka, people 3 in
Masalia, territory 186
Masa, people 43n
Maski, locality 245-46
Mas^udi, author 143, I44n, 145
Masulipatam, locality 186
Matahga, holy spot 278, 327
Matanga, sage 327
Mdtadgaltld, work 342
Mathanadeva, chitf 241
Mdthara-Kaundinya nydya 192
Mathara, people 33n
Mathura, city 30-31, 48n, 87, 109,

1 15, 241, 282; Dakdna 243; Dis-
trict 109; inscription 182, region
109, 1 13

Mathura, river 4.S n
Matk?sa, wrong text 84
Matko^a, wrong text 84n
Matrgupta, poet 300
Matsya, people and country 30-31, 70
and n, 78, 112, 22on, 284n; courdiy
100; de^a 86
Matsya country 1 12-13
Matsya Purdna, 3n, i8n, 2in, 26, 200n,
243, 252n

Matsya-^ila, holy spot 278
Mau^alya-gotra 176-77
Maukhari, clan 124, 206; court poet 124;
king 124

Maulaka, people 39
Maulapattana, locality 105, 122
Maulika, people ^gn
Maxmika, people 39n
Maurya, dynasty 3, 159, i6on, 163
165, 167, 196-99, 214, 217, 231,
286, 313, 318; emperor 3, 196-99,
217, 231, 286, 313
May§. hob iflace 282

INDEX

373

Maya-ksetra ii6

Mayapura, locality 86, 88, 1 13-15,

231

Mayaptir pass 114
Mayuraialmall, locality 162
Mayurbhanj District 17611, 194
Mc’Grindle 6n, 22911
Mec, tribe 152
Mecca, holy place 102-03,

Medapata, territory 260
Mediterranean sea 234, 330
Meerut 30, no, 115, 202-04, 34o;
District 30, no, 115, 202, 340;
region 202-04
Meghaduta^ work i85n
Meglma, river 90, 105, 131, 133^5
138x1, 215; estuary 131, i36-37>

215

Meharauli pillar inscription 10, 236-
37

Mehar copper-plate inscription 156
Mekala, people and territory 42 ana n,
43n, 338 and n
Mekong, river 66n, 320, 323
Mela at Gangas%ar 223
Menander, king 198, 232
Mendhapatha, locality 72n
Mersey i36n

Mem, mythical mountain 9n, 1 7-20,

21 and n, 32in
Memvara, rrythical territory 277
Me ika-grama 248
Methora, same as Mathura 109
Mevada, country 260
Mewar, j-onie Mevada 241
Mhow, locality 54n
Midnapur District 43n, 1 59,

173> 217-18

Alien, same as Burma I35n
Alihirakula, king 108, 208
Alihran, river 52n
Ali-lan, same as Milinda 233
Alilinda, same as Menander 198, 232-
33

Mtltndapanhay work 73n, 197-98, I99n,
230, 232

Alinhajuddin, author 152-54, 156-57,
15811

Minnagara, city 226

Minor Rock Edict of Asoka 6

Alinorsky i45n, 146 and n, 147

Alirashi, V.V. 187, igon, 244n, 3o6n

Mir Ziyarat, locality 35n

Mirzapur District 256

Alisiira, J.K. 127, I28n

Misra, B. i48n

Alisra, Harikrsna 77

Mitdk^ardi work 10

Alithila, city and territory 20, 37n, 128,

254. 25511, 297, 319, 322-23
Alitra, R,E. 282n
Alitrasarman, officer 292
"MlccchB., foreign people 48n, 67, 83-84,

102, 152, 164, 202 and n, 271, 278
and n; country 99, 202-03, 205
Mleccha 7on
Alleccha-raja 277
tnodala-'Vdda 258

Mo-ha, same as Mahi, river 207
Afohanavarta, locality 89, 116
Mohawak, locality 211
Mohit^ encyclopaedia 330
Mo-la-p’o, same as Malava, country 206-

MoUai, locality 122
Monga, same as Mongolia 104
Monghyr, city 36n, 8g, 102, 248, 251-
52, 329; District 90, 107, 249, 251,

255, 308; inscription 248, 250; region
254 > 332

Mongh^-Bhagalpur region 254
Mongolia, country 104, 280
Mons, tribe 324
Montgomery District 32, 205
Mookerjee, Radha Kamal I2in
Mookerjee, Sir Asutosh 264n
Moor, community 136
Mophis, river 226
Moraes logn
Moreland 136

Mod Chandra 33B, I72n, I9:>n, 216
Moulmein, locality 319
Mount Abu 42n
Mount Usira 269

M.F. 43n, 44n, 62n, 185, i88,

333 > 335

Alrama, same as Burma 37 n
Mrga, class of elephants 252-53^ 332,

340 and n

Ali'gadava, locality 313
Alrohaung, locality 142
Mudakara, people 36n
Mudgagiri, city 36n, 248, 252;

m^aya 252
Mudgala-gotra 176
Mudgara, people 36n
Mudgaraka, people 36 and n
Mudrakaraka, people 36n
Mudrdrdk^asa^ work 47n
Madraya, country 25
Mughisuddin Tughnl Khan, Sultan

157-58

Mughul 141; emperor 76, 106, 299;

empire i4in; subah 134
Muhaka, people 74n
Muhammadan, community 103, 118,

136, 158, 291; conquest 154; countries
100, 134; rule 1 18

374

geography of AISTGIENT and MEBIEVAE INDIA

Muhammad-i-Bakhtiyar, general 152
Mukambika, goddess 82, 95
Muka, people 31

Mukhalingam, locality 169, 171, 332
Mukkana Kadamba, mythical king 188
Muktavali, mythical territory 23
Muktavalivara, rr^tkical territory 23
Muktavalivaravabhasa, mythical terri-
tory 23

Mtiktimatiy rioer 5611
Mukundaramaj author 135115 221
Mukiitaj river 5611

Mul^ka, M'daka, country 39115 40n,

1895 193, 264 audn, 272, 273

and n, 274

hi ulasarvdsiwdda-Ekasatakarmay work

269

Mulasarvajstivadin, Buddhist School
268-69; vinaya 169^ 273
Mulasoma-vihara 315
Mulasthana, city 52n5 262
Mnlastya-visaya 261
Mnigund inscription 15
Mulij river 6 in
Mulika, people sgn, 68n
Mulk al-Darhmi, Mulk-al-Ruhmi 143
Mnlk-i-Lrakhnautf, locality i58n
Miiltai, locality 57n

Multan, city and territory 33n, 52n, 113,
i45> 239, 262, 290

Munda, people 37n
Mundaka, p^eople 272
Mun‘im Khan, officer 141
Munsbiganj, territory 90
Murala, people 41 and n
Murala, liver 229 and n
Murshidabad, city 110-20, 177; District
103, 121-22
Murunda, people 216
Musaka, territory 165
M^rsi, river 380
Musika, people 38 and n
Musikada, people 38n
Musikapatha, locality or pcs.s ysn
Muslim, 52n, 139-40, 158, 202, 209,
290, 299, 328; authors 3 in, 49n, 106,
134, 179, 262n, 335; countries 99,
1 14, i58n; rule 118, isgn, 181,
299; sources 141, 290
MmaiFarpur District 57n, loi
Mweyin, locality 318
Mymensingh District 90, 112, 149,

160, 163-65, 335n
Myohaung, Locality 142
Mysore, city and territory 3, ii, 390,
43n, g6, 109, 19 in, 245-47,

310, 333n 336

Nabhi, mythical king 3n, 2 in
Nadia, 122, 123; territory 1 n.

132, 154-55

Nadia-Laklinauti region 153

Na- fu-ti O-lo-na-shuen, king 326

Naga, mythical territory 23

Naga, same as Puspadanta 338

Nagadvipa, mythical territory ^n, 22n

Nagadvipa, territory 324

Nagar, village 206

nagara^ ^city or towrd 2ro, 230

Nagar a, same as Nagarahara 293

Nagara, alphabet 127

Nagarahara, city 293

Jsfagarasresthin^ title 275 and n

Nagari, alphabet 126

Nagari copper-plate inscription 179

Mdgarikd^ ^ woman of Pataliputra’ 248n

Nagarjuni hill 56n

Nagarjunikonda valley 4on

Nagarkot, fort 52n

JSfagar-setk 2J^n.

Nagasahvaya, city 6

Nagavara, rrythical territory 23

Nagpur, city i86, 188

Nahar, P.G. sogn

Nahapana, iSaka Satrap 226-27

Naimika, people 4on

Naimis-aranya 2 2 on

Nainar, S.M.H. 144 and n, 145, 147

Nairnika people 4on

Nairrta, dikpdla 331 and n

nairrta^ ^iouth-wesf 331 and n

Naisadha, people 44n

Na.sadha-varsa 2 in

Nais ka, people 40 and n

Na.tika, people 4on

naksd 326

Nala, people 4on,

Nala, royal family 165, 247
Nalakalaka, people 4on
Nalakalika, people 40 and n
Nalakalupa, people 4on
Nalakaraka, people 4on
NManda, town 252, 324, 325 and n;

copper -plate tnscripnon 252
Nalapura, locality 44n, 306
Nalavadi, territory 247
NalinI, river 6on, 65 and n, 66n, 7211,
73 and n

Namades, river 226-2 J
Pfdmarupapariccheda^ work 315
Narhdanava^i, locality 294n
Naihsika, mistake for Nasika, people
4in

Nan-chao, territory 322

Nanda dynasty 163, 171,213-14,217

Nandani, river 53n

Nandana, river from the pariyatra 53n
Nandana, river from the B-k^a 54n
Nanded District 188, 193, 306, 31 1
Nander-Nizamabad region 193

INDEX

375

Nandikata, locality i88
Nandini, river 5311
N^dipiiri^ city 207
Nandisvara-dvipa, mythical territory 23
Nandisvaroda Ocean 23
Nandurbar, locality 155
Nangana, people 68n
Nannappa, king iSyn
naqshah 326
Mdradiya Parana 284n
Narada-kunda, holy pool 278
Naraka^ demon 162-63
J^arapati 115-16
Narasimha, chief 305n
Naravana copper-plate grant 187
Narayan, locality 241
Narayana, god 250
Narayanapala, king 148

Narbada, same as Narmada 54n
Narerndu-desa 260
Narendrayasas, author 77
Narikavaca, same as Mulaka 273
Narmada, river 14-15, 29, 3Qn, 4in,
44n, 46n, 52n, 5311, 54 and n, ^ 6 n,
57n, 63 and n, 64n, d^n, 94, 97,
III, 189-90,225-27, 247, 258 and
n, 266, 322, 337, 338 and n, 339
and n; valley 57n,2o8
Narteivara, deity 149
Narwar, 4411, 304
Nasik, city 32, 41 n, 93 '‘ 94 ^

155, 226, 227 and n, 228-29, 272;
District 39n; inscription 1990; region
32, 98, III, 226-28
Nasikanta, people 4m
Nasikya, people 41 and n, 271
Nasiruddin Bughra K.hrn I29n, 158
Pfdtyasdstra, work 125, 175
Nausari, town 113, 207, 225-26, 260,
274n

Nausari-Broacb region 225, 260
Nausaripa, locality 226
Naushera, locality 36n
Nava, prince 252-53
Nava, queen 252-53
nava-^bheda 5n

Navadvipa, town 105, 122, 152, 210
Navarastra, territory 252-53
Navarastra, people sgn
Navasdhasdnkacaritay work 41 n
Navasarika, city 113, 207, 226
Navya region 133-34
Nawab 96, 247n; 0/ Arcot (Carnatic)
96

Nayacandra-suri, author 132
Nearkbus, general 225n
Neil 2140, 268 and n, 274
Nellore District 380, 185
Nellor e-Guntur region, 59n, gi

Nemad (Nimar) District 245
Nemimandala-kostha 7411
Nepal, country 31, 5on, ySn, 106, 116,
160, 162, 165, 200, 26in, 279-81,
301, 327-28

Nepala, same as Nepal 78, 104, 259;
deSa 84

Nepalese — inscriptions 166; manuscripts
126; 'Tarai 19-20, gSn, 313
Nepali, Gopal Singh 261 n
Nerbudda, same as Narmada 54n
Nesari copper-plate inscription 132,
140

Newar, tribe 26 in

Newari 78n; era 301

Newuj, river

New World 318

New York 21 1

Nicholas, G.W. ijin, 3240

Nicia, city 230

JSTiddesa text 72n, 73n

Nidhanpur copper-plate grant 161-62

nigama 21 1

Nigarhara, people 45n
Nihara, people 45n
Nihsvara, river 48n, 5 in
Nikumba, locality 232
Nila, mythical mountain i8n, 20
Nila, elephant 331 and n, 332, 339 and
n

Nila, river 48n, 49n
Nil-adri, same as Nila-parvata 93
Niiakantha, author ^jn
Nilakuta, same as Nila-parvata 93
Nilamukha, people 71 and n
Nilab, river 49n

Nila-parvata, same as Nil-adri 81, 93
Nilapura, territory 260
Nila-varsa am
Nilotpala, river 55n
Nilphamari, territory 30 in
Nimar (Nemad) District 44n, 5711,

97 . 190

Nimi, rnythical king 254
Nirahara, people 45 and n
Nirugundagi-i2, territory 257
Niiukta^ work 287

Nirvindhya, river 57 and n, 63 and n
Nisada, people 71 and n
Nisadha, mythical mountain i8n, 20
Nisadha, people 44' and n, 273
Nisadha, river 57n,

Nisadhavati, river 57 and n

Nisaka, country 234

Niscala, river 5on

Niscira, river 48n, 50 and n, 5in

Nivrti, country 100, 105; desa 122

Nivrt-mandala 259

Niyogi, P. 263n

376

GfiOaitAI»Ify O? AJSrCSlBJ^T and medieval INDtA

Nizamabad District 4on, 189, 26221;
region 193

Nizamabad-Karimnagar region 262n
Nmyas, town 147

Noakhali — District 149; region 15 1,

15 ^- 57 ,

North Pole 7

North-Western Province i29n
North-West Frontier 289
Nowgonga locality 210; District 298
Nrga, prince 253
Nrga, queen 252-53
Nrkatta, person 250
Nudia, city 152-53
Niir, river 5 in

nydya — M.dthara-Kaux^dinya 1 92

Nyayalankara, Bhavadeva 222

Ocean of Jala 17

Oddi-visaa, same as Andriya-visaya
167, 183

Oddiyana-desa 260
O-di, same as O-di-vi-sa 182
Odisa, Odisa, same as Orissa 167, 183
O-di-vi-ia, Odi-visa, Odi-visa, same as
Orissa 167, 182-83

O-di-ya-na, Odiyana, saine ^2^ Uddiyana
182

Odra, country and people 165, 167, 175
and n, 1B2, 183 and n
Odre^a, deity 183 and n
Odresvari, goddess 183 and n
Oghavati, river 540, 64n
Ohdhang Ghaut, locality 280
Ojha, G. H. i26n, i27n
Okkaka, same as Iksvaku 313-14
Old-Dravida 92
Oldenberg 28 yn
O’Malley 282n

Oihgodu copper-plate grant 8
Onkar Mandhata, locality 245
Opian, locality 230
Oppert 20 in

O-rgyan, same as Uddiyana 182
Orientals 267, 271

Orissa 16, 39n, 43n, 54n, 55n, 58n,
6 in, 62n, 89, 91, 105-06, 115, 122-
23, 124 and n, 126, 131 n, 141-42,
146-48, 153, i58n, 159, 167-68,

170-71, 173-75, 176 and n, 177,
lySn, 179, 180, 1 8 in, 182-84, ^^7^
194, 210, 213-14, 221, 223, 256,
257n, 261, 285, 324, 332, 335;
Coastal 339

Oriya 127-28, 175; alphabet 126;

people 167, 170, 183
Oriya-speaking area 175
Ortcdius igSa

Omsanabad D.wrict 227, 310

Ossadioi, people
Oudh, territory 106
Ovin^on 135, 137, isSn
Oxus, river 10, 13, 24-25, 34n, 35n,
46n, 5 in, 66n, 6 yn^ 182, 198, 200,
236; valley Gyn, 195
Oxydrakai, people 32
Ozene, city 225n, 226-27, 229-30

Pabna District 160
Padam Pawaya, locality 304
Padaria, locality 19, 313
Padatdditaka-bhwria 47n
Padgama, people 44n
Padha, people 44n

Padma, elephant 331 and n, 332 and
n, 338 and n, 340 and n, 341 and n
Padma, river 105, 120, 122, 131, I36n,
215, 220, 299; estuary 215
Padma-Meghna estuary 215
Padmapura, locality 188, 304-05
Padma Parana 26, 284n, 303 and n,
306

Padmavati, city 304
Padonalak§a, territory 262n
pagan 224n
Pagan, city 319-20
pagoda 223n

Pahlava, Pahlavi, people 32, 3311, 34n,
68 and n, i99n
Pahnava, people 32
Pahurdyojana, territory 295-97
Pain, Painganga, river 57n
Paisuni, river 55n, 57n
Paithan, locality sgn, 189, 193, 273
and n

Paithinasi, author 2i3n
Pdiyalacchiy work 209
Pajaya, wrong text 59n
Pakistan 123, 289; East 90, 93, 105,
112, 117, 131, 142, 151, 158, 163,
295. 298, 301 and n,320, 333, 334n,
335n, West 33n, 3411, 6 gn, 119,
id2, 197, 203, 205, 246, 323
Paksabahu, territory 262
Paksi-tirtha 336
Pal,‘ M.G. 26

PMa dynasty 12-13, 106, 120, 131-32,
135 and n, 140-43, 146, 148, 152,
159, 162-63, 250-52, 283-84, 288,
29611, 298; age 249, 282, 284; army
12; court 13; emperor i, 148, 152,
162; empire 148
Palaesimxmdu, territory 316
Palakapya-muni 342
Palasini, river 62 and n
Palasiai, same as Paialini 62n
Palembang, locality 322
Pali ig, 27, 42n, 56n, 21 1, 253, 264-

til

653 314-15; Buddhist wo^ks 19, 232;
269, 317; chronicles 316; literature 4113
gn, 189; sources 313
Palibotjhra, city 171
Paliya, people 1 1 1
Pallava dynasty 33; Early 185
Pambipura, territory 260
Pamca-prasthana 87
Paihdii, territory 86iij 26D3 262
Pamdyaka, territory 95
Pamgu, territory 262
Pamirs 195, 198, 200, 203
Pampa, locality and Ic^e 308, 327
Panpa-Bhdratay work 306
Pampm, locality 93
Panata, territory 78
Panaviya, people ^6x1
Panca-Dravida 16, 128
Panca-Gauda 129

Panca-Gaudiya community 129
Panca-jana, territory 332 and n, 333-
34

Pancakot, territory go
Pancakuta, same as Pancakot 90
Pancala, king 15

Pancala, P^c^a, country and people
30-3 1 > 70 and n, 78, 86 and n, 99,
10O5 102, 106, and n, no, 201, 202,
204, 22on; North gg; South 99
Pancala, country in the west 83, 201-02
Pancaladeva, mountain 204
Paiicaladh^a, pass 204
Pancalaka, same as Pancala, people 30
Panca-mahdsabda 292
Pancanada, combined course of Jive
rivers 52n

Pancanada, same as Punjab 237-39,
334. 339^

Pancanada, class of elephants 333,
337. 339

Pancarupa, river 48n
Panca-sarah, holy place 277-78
Pancasikha, holy spot 277
Pancavati, locality 32
Pancayat board 276n
Panchlr, same as Panjshir, river 51 n
Pandaranga, name 3 2 in
Pandava, people loi, 204
Pandava brothers 7
Pandharpur, locality 194
P2Li1d.oou.oi, people loi, 204

country 83, loi, 113, 203-05
Panduranga, name 32 in
ParidiXTafiga, territory 321
Pandurangapalii copper-plate grant
187-88, 194

Pandurangi, K.T. 32 in

Pandya, country and people 38 and n, 46,

95, 1 13, 165, 243, 246n, 260
Pandya, same as Pandu, country 8311,
86, loi, 204-05

Panigrahi, K-G. 146 and n, 147
Panika, people 3 gn

Panini, author 73n, 119, iggn, 26611,
267 and n, 268
Panjab, territory 108
Panjshir, river 5 in
Panran, territory 322
Pantsal, mountain and river 204
Pao-yun, text 286
Papapramocana, holy spot 278
Para, river 53n
Para, river 53 and n
Parab 24n

Paracakrakama, title of king Jayadeva
165

Parada, people 33 and n, 68 and n,
7on

Paraitakene, people 32
Parakramabahu I, king 325
Paraksara, people 41 n
Paramabhattdraka, title 176-77, 248
Paramaxa dynasty 7, ii, 15, 4in,
129-30, 209-10, 257 and n
Paramasaugata, epithet 248
Paramatthajotikd, work 271
Paramatthaviniccaya, work 315
Parameivara, title 248
Paramesvari, godt ess 87
Paranavitana, S. lyin, 324n
Parandha, people 32
Paras, river 62n

Parasamudra, same as Ceylon 316
Parasara, author 27 in
Parasika, Parasika people 7, 12, 47
and n, 78, 200, 234
Paraskara, people 4 in
Paraspatika, village 276
Parasurama, incarnation of Visiiu 32
P^ata, country 263
Pdrdyarm, text 189, 264-66, 271-72,

274

Pareta, people 33n
Pargana 154, 257

Pargiter, F. E. 26-28, 4411, 5on,

55U, 58n, 6 in, 102-03, io6n, 108,
III, 159-60, 161 and n, 164, 231,
243n, 27in

P^ipatra, mountain i8n, 47n, 540,
63n

Paris, cit^ Ssgn
Parita, people 33n

Panyatra, mountain 14, 44n, 47 and n,
5in, 53n, 54 and n, 63 and n, 21311,
338n; people 47n
Paxiyatraka, same as Pariyatra 33B
Parlakimedi, locality 6in

$78

geography op ancient and medieval INDIA

Parnabhumika, text ysn

Parn^a, riser 53n

Parnasa^ riser 53 and n, 5711

Parsaronij river 5511

Parivakika, wrong text 78

Parivanatha, Jain Tzrthankara 308-09

Partabgarh inscription 305n

PartJbiarX:, people ggn, 200

Paruck, F.D.J. 239-40

Parv-an, town 5 in

Parvata-maru 74 and n

Parvat-asrayin, ^Himalayan* people 45n

Parvati, goddess 79, 250

Parvati, river 53n

Pasanaka-cetiya 264

Pasari, river 590

Palcad-desa 29, 40, 65n, 80, 2i4n
Pascim-oiadhi 68 and n
Pa^catya 213 and n^ 224; acala i2n
Pahima-payodhi ion

Pascimbhag copper-plate grant 58n,

150-523 156

Pasinis river 62n
Pa^accara, people 30-31
Patala, city 230-31
Patala, nether world 222 and n
Pataliputra, city 541I3 107, 171,210-
II, 248, 25^, 266, 297n
Fdtaliputrikdh 248n
Pataliputtiram, locality 297n
Pataajali, author 17, 24n, 730^ 109^3

238, 265-66
Pa|avi, wrong text 44n
Pathe^vara, people 3 on
Patiakella, locality 176
Patiala, territory 291
Patitthana, city 264, 272-73
Patna, city 31, 5on, 54n, 107, 168, 1 71,
178, 210, 248, 251, 297n; District
102, 107, 127, 249, 254, 325; region
107, 168, 178, 254
Patna-Gaya region 254
Patna- Sonpnr-region 168, 178

pattald^ ^disincP 257n
pattana^ ‘township’ 210, 259
Pattikera, city 157
Patu, people 44 and n
Paudanya, city 4on, 189, 193
Paundra, t^eople 37 and n, 4611, 123
Paundraka Vasudeva, mythical king
161

Panndravardhanapura, city 163
Pannika, people 3gn
Paurava, clan 10 1
Paurika, people 39 and n
Pava, city or hrritory 78^ 264
Pavani, river of the west 53n
Pavani, river of the north 65 and n, 66n,
72 and n;, 134, i 6 $n

Payasvinl, river 64n

Payosai, river 57 and n, 63 and n, 64n,

6^X1

Peddavegi, village 168
Pegu, territory 103, 142, 319, 323
Pehoa, locality 49n
Penang, locality 322
‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’ 114,
172-73, i87n, 215-16, 225 and n,
226-28, 229 and n, 231, 233-34
PcTsm^country r3,25n, 33n,io2-03, 235
Persian, people 7, 24, 47n, i sgn, 289,
329; emperors 25; inscriptions 24-25;
kingdom 103; language isgn; works
142: writer^ 15-5
Perso-Arabic 155; script 156
Peshwa Baji Rao I 94
Peshawar, city and territory 33n, 35n,
5m, 197 and n, 199, 203, 289-91,
293; District 197, 289, 323; region
log, 197, 203, 205
Peshavvar-Hazara region 203, 205
Peshawar-Rawalpindi region 109
Petavatthuy text 1 97
Phalguvahini, river 56n
Phayre, A. 300
Phillott, D. C. isgn
Phnom Kulen hills 321
Phulbari Police Station 275, 295
Pidika, people 35n
Pi-lo-mo-lo, locality 240
Pina, people 34n
Pippala, river 55n
Pippala cave 322
Pippala^reni, river 55n
Pippalasronx, Pippalisroni, river 55
and n

Pippali, river 55n
pirates 229

Pir Panchal-range 99, 100, no
Pir Panjal, Pir Pantsal, same as
Pir Panchal 106, 204
Pisabika, wrong text 55n
Pisaca 238

Pisacika, river 54n, 55 and n
Pischel, R. 265
Pistapura, city 167-68
Pi.amaha, same as Brahman 222
plthay ^holy spoV 183
Pithapuram, locality 167, 169, 285

pitha-sthdnay '‘holy spof 91, 182-84

Pit^ati, same as Yama 331 and n
pitrs 284

Pitrsoma, river 6 in
Plaksa-dvipa, mythical territory 17 and
n, 24n

Plavahga, people 37n
Pliny, author i68n
Plusta, people 45n

tsbnx

^f9

Poleman ySn
pole-star 330
PoluoSj locality 321
Poona, city 25n, 26, 226, 227 and n,
228; region 226^ 228
Poros, same as Paurava loi
Porto Grande 136, i38n
Porto Piqueno 136
Portuguese 131, 135, 136 and n, 137-
38, 221, 299, 330
Portus Magnus 136 and n
Portus Parvus 136 and n
Potali, same as Paudanya 189
Potana, same as Paudanya 189, 255n
Prabala-pratdp^dnvita'-rajMhirdja, title i
Prabandhacintdmaniy work 2 1 on
Prabhasa, holy place 283
Prabhasa-Sarasvatx, river 52n
Prabhavati, Khadga queen 149
Prabhavatigupta, queen 185
Pracandapdndava^ work 4 in
prdcl, prdclnd^ ‘eastern’ 66n5 72 and n,
73 and n

Pracya, country and people 29, 36, and
n, 38 and n, 46n, 65n, 80, 125, lyi,
213-14, 268, 332 and n, 333-35>
337. 340 n; forest 334, 337, 34a;
desa 36n

pradeia 301 ; cakravartin 4n
Prdg ambhodhi^ ^eastern ocean* i2n
Pragjyotisa, country and people 7, 13,
SGn, 37 and n, 46n, 104, i59“^<^>5

1 61 and n, 162-66, 200, 214, 297-
98; country i i2n

Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa, country ii2n,

16 1 and n, 162-66
Pragjyotisapura, city 162-63
Prajapati, god 238
Prqjfidpandy text 173, 218
Prakrit 26-28, 199, 21 1, 262, 265,
300-01, 309
Prakritism 39n, 42n
Prdkrtdnusdsana, work i28n, 301
Praley-adri, same as Himalaya 1 2 and
n

Prdncahy Hhe Easterners* 267
Prang-Gharsabda-Mir Ziyarat region
3511, 289

Pranhita, Pranita^ river son
Prdntapdla^ designation 293n
Pranuna, people
Prasenajit, kmg 254n
Prasii, Greek form foi Pracyal^ 171, 213-
14

Prasravana, hill 327
prastha 114, 116-17
Prasthala, people 35 and n
Prathama, people 37 ^

Prathama-kayastha^ designation 275

Prathama’-kulika^ designation 275
Pratharaga, wrong text 37n
praticli ^western* 65 and n, 66n
Praticya, territory i86n
Trsitihara., clan 4jn, 108, 141-42, 144
and n, i45n, 146-47, 208, 240-41,
290, 303, 305 and n
pratijdgaranaka, same as ^pargana* 257
Pratijaya, people 37n
Pratisthana, city 189, 226-27, 273

and n

Prativesya, people 34n
Pr^tragira, people 36n
pratyanta 16 in, 2i4n, 298
pravdla, ^coraT 233
Pravanga, people 37 and n
prdvara 1 72

Pravijaya, people 37 and n
Pravrseya, people syn
Prayaga, holy place 42n, 213, 2i4n,

22on, 222, 283, 303, 307, 333-34.

337

Premahara, river 339 and n
Prince, J, 223n
Prisaka, people yin
Priyadar;§ana, Yaksa 264
Priyalaukika, people 34 n
Priyavrata, mythical king 2 in, 22n
Prome, ctty 319, 323-24, 335
Prsadhra, people syn
Prihivivallahha^ title I45n
Prthivivigraha, king 174, 177
Prthfdaka, locality 80, 2i4n
Paeudostomon, stream 215
Ptotemy, author 49n, 59n, 72n, 10 1,

1 14, 120, 1 71, 173. 1S7. 204, 215-
J7. 225-31. 233, 319. 322, 330

Puhlinga, wrong text 31
Pulakesin II, king 165, 206, 258
Pulastya, territory 261
Puleya, people 41 and n
Puliihdaka, same ast Pulinda 78
PuimdB.^ people 30, 33n, 39 and n, 4in,
70 and n, 102, 1 1 1 -i 2 ; country iii;
desa 86

Pulindaka, same as Pulinda 78
Pulindhra, Pulindra, people 86n
Puliya, people 4 in
Pulle, P-I. 328-29
Pulumayi, king 273
Punastoma, rite 219
Punch, territory 36n
Punch-Naushera region 36n
Pundarika, elephant 331 and n, 338,
34D

Pundesvari, goddess 250
Pundra, people and country 37n, 38n,
4m, 46 and n, 105, 122-23, ^59
and n, 160-62, 168, 172, 216, 219

^80

OEOGItAPHV^ OF ANOIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

and n; country 122, 297; deia 105,
122, 297

Puidralak^a, mountain 214 n
PundravardLana, city and territory
371X5 123, 159 and n, i6o and n,
iSin, 162, 191, 2i4n, 2165 333;
bhzikii 159, 246n, 275-765 280,

295 > 297

Pxmkhagrama, locality 324
Punjab, territory 16, 30, 32, sGn, 42n,
46 n 5 49n, 5on5 52n5 1 00-01 jiog-io,
113-145 197, 204-05, 232, 237-40,

244, 262, 266, 289, 30I5 333-34;
Eastern 46x1, 4gn^ 99, no, 129, 201,
291, 340; forest 339; rivers 230;
Western sSn, 202-05 ^

Punjab-Rajasthan region 32, no
Punyatara, author 269
Punyavardhana, same as Pundra-
vardbana 123
Punyavati, river 6on
Parana 5, 8, 34n5 sBn, 79-805 159,

168, 1965 200*01, 220, 23 1 5 243,

245, 262, 268, 27in, 274, 277, 280,
282-84, 340

Purana-Vmdikabari, village 276
Purandhra, people 32
Purajiic 237; Bharatavarsa 5; concept
tion oj earth 9, 21; ideas 328; legends
3; literature 6, 32, 104, 107; texts
57n5 277; tradition yon, 16 1, 273,
289; writers 24, 253, 287
Purchas, author 135, I37n
Puri, city sgn, 91, 94, 107, 153*545

169, I74*75> 177-795 210, 217-

18, 221-22, 270 and n, 282, 324,

335; area 174-755 ^79; Bistrici

son, 43n, 89, gi, 116, 122, 167,
187,256,332; region 169,178,217

Puri- Cuttack region 91, 174-75
Puri-Guttack-Balasore region 1 79
Puriddba-io, territory 257
Puri-Ganjam area 177-78, 217
Purigere, territory 257
Purika, city ^yn
Purna, pitha i83n
Purt^adarva, wrong text ^6n
Purnagiri, pifha 183 and n
Pumea, locality 120; District 161-62,
279^

Pumesvari, goddess iSsn
Purshavar, Purshawar, city 5 in, 290
Puru, clan 253
Puru, same as Poros loi
Purulia, District 122
Pumsapura, city igyn, 291, 293
Puru^ottama, god 26, i28n, 157, 218,
222, 301

Puru§ottama-Jagannatba, god 335

Purusottanaapuri, locality 210, 218
3 Parva-desa 29, 36, 46 and n, 6^11,
74 and n, 80, 127, 2i4n
Purv-adri, mythical mountain i2n
Purvagandhika, mythical territory 2on
Purva-jalanidbi, ocean 1 1 n
Purva-Malava, Ea^t Malwa 98 and n
Purva-sagara, ocean 163
Purva-Videha, mythical territory gn, 19,
2on, 21

Purv-odadhi, ocean ii2n
Pushkar region 43n
Puskala, people 35n
Puskala, prince Sgn
Puskalavataka, people 35n
Puskalavati, city ssn, 35n, Ggn, 197,
289, 323

Puskara — dvipa 22 and n; holy place
219, 283; lake 338; locality 319;
ocean 22

Puskara, mythical territory 17 and n,
2 in, 22, 24n

Puskaravati, city 197, 289, 319, 323
Puskara- water Ocean 22
Puspadanta, elephant 331 and n, 332
and n, 338 and n
Puspaja, river 60 and n
Puspavati, river 6on
pustapdla, ^record-keeper^ 275
Pusyabbuti dynasty 206, 208
Pusyamitra Sunga, king 17, 266
Pyri, river 55n

Qaxnrun, country 145-47
Qandbar, town 31 1
Qandharsharif Taluk 3 1 1
Qannawj, city 144x1.

Qanungo, K.R. 155
Quilon, town 38n, 92

Rdbiyd, wrong text 148
Radba, country 37n, 122, i3in, I58n,
170 217, 246n

Radba, same as Radba i and n
Ragbu, mythical king 6-7, ion, i6in,
172, 200, 217-185 234-35
Ragbu-kula ion

Raghuvamia, work 6-7, 47n5 5 in, 13 1,
i32n, 159, i6m, 171-73, 182, 200,
217, 229 and n5234, 270 and n,3i5n
Rahab, river 52n

Rahma, Rahma, wrong text, kingdom
i35n, 143-44, 148

Rabmaniya, same as Pegu 142
Rahmay, Rabmi, see Rahma, etc,
I35n, 144

Raigarh, locality 62n

Rai Lakbmania, king 153, 155

Raipur District 43n, 106, 261, 27on

Raipur-Bilaspur region 335
Raipur-Bilaspur Sambalpur region
43n5 106, 261, 27on
Rdja^ wrong text 315
Rdjd 223n5 291
Rajabhadraka, people 41 n
rdjadhdni 195

Rajagrba, city 107, 249, 254, 319,
325; visaya 249
Rajanarayana, chief i
Rajapura, town in Kashmir 195-96,
Rajapura, town 322
Rajapurl, town 210
Rdjarsiy epithet of G?cy 3 , 284, 286
Raja^ekhara, author 5, 26, 4 in, 80,
i93» 214, 263n, 303

Rajasthan, territory 30, 32, 350, 42n,
43n, 44n, 53n, 141, 205-06, 223,

241, 256, 261, 276n, 336, 339;

Eastern 113, 241; Northern 203
Rdjatarangini, work 8n, i6n, 72n, 93,
I29n, 195 and n, 204n, 262n, 290,
291 and n, 300, 328, 337 and n
Rajauna, riUage 249-51, 254-35
Rajauri, town in Kashmir 195-96
Rajanri, town 241
Rajavarta, locality 88, 116

Rajendra (Rajendracola) I, king 2,
132, 19m

Rajgir, town 102, 107, 249, 254, 325
Rajmahal, locality 138, 160, 24m,
299» 333; 120

rojfil 148

Rajor, Rajorgadh, town 241-42
Rajpipla, territory 56x1
R.ajpu.ty people loSsjggn
Rajputana, terri(ary 219, 23940,
242; Desert 13, 32, 9’, 97
Rajshahi, tozm and territory 112, 122;

Dutricf 335n

Rajshahi -Bogra-Mymensingh area
1 12

Rajvamsi, people 1 1 1
Rajyamati, queen 165
Rajyapura, Rajyapuri, town 241
Rajyavardhana, king ofThaneswar 121,
208

Rakhaingmyu, locality 319
Rak^asa, ^ogre^ 3Sn
Rak§asi , ress^ 316
Rak§o-vidyadhara, mythical peoples
69 and n
Ralihi, river 5on

Raktamrttika, locality 105, 121, 124;
oihdra 105, 121

Ral, aj Radha, I3in, I58n
Rama, Iksvdku king 6, 10-13, 32, 8in,

270, 303. 327

INDEX 381

Ramacandra, Yadava king 144x1, 194
Rdmacarita^ work 154, 163
Ramadurga, locality 97
Ramadixrga, goddess 82, 97
Rama-giri 102
Rama-ksetra 84, 102
Ramana, people 33n
Ramanatha, locality 82, 96
Ramanatha-matha q6
Ramanathapxiram District 38n, 96

Ramanya, Ramanya-desa 319, 325
Ramapala, Pdla king 119, 154, 250
Rama-priya 32
Ramapura, locality 319
Rama’s bridge 6, 8, 10-13
Ramasiddhi-pataka, locality 134
Ramatha, people 33 and n
Ramauti, ti8
Ramavati, Ramavati-nagara, city
1 18, 120, 30Q

Rdmdyana^ work 2-3, 26, 57n, 66 n,
163, i<57n, 237 and n, 238, 245,
270, 283-84, 308, 314
Rambha-vihara 324
Ramesvara-tirtha 3811,81 and n, 92,
96 "and n

Ramgahga, river 5 on, 52n
Raihgeya, people
Ramina, people 41 n
Ram Khamheng, king 323
Ramnad District 96
Ramnagar, locality 30, 5on ,599
Ramsiddhi locality 134
Ramtek, locality 102
Ramu, locality i35n, 142
Ramya, mythical prince 21 n
Ramya, river 54n
Ramayaka-varsa 20, 21 and n

Ramyanagara, town 319
Ranaghat, locality 279
Ranavahkamalla,fii/e of king Harikala

157

Randhrakaraka, Randhravaraka,
people 69 and n

Rahgamati, locality 105, 119, I2i
Rangeya, people 37n
Rangoon, city 319

Rangpur, town 93, 160; District ioo>
122, 30 in

Rahksu, rwer 48n, 51 n
Rantbil, wrong text 293n
Rapson, E. J. 229n^ 245
Rapti, river 5on
Rasa, river 48n
Rasakarin.1, river 652n
Rashiduddin, author 263, 323
Rasita, people 41 n
Ras Kumhari, locality 330
rostra 315

382

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Ra§trakuta, dynasty ii, 132, 141,

143-44., 187, 190, 192, 208-09,

21011, 246, 256,30511, 310, 312;
am^ 315; genealogy 311; king 3,
1 1, 142, 145 and n, 146, 187-88,
305 and n, 306, 310; kingd m 260;
period 31 1

Rata dynasty 149, 156
Ratanpur, locality 44n
Ratara^a, wrong text 260
Ratnadhara, people 3411
Ratna-dvipa, locality 324
Rainagarbhasutra^ text 286
Ratnagiri, locality 187, 194
ratndkaray ^sea^ 81, I33n
Ratnapura, locality 324
Ratnapura-caturaiika 256 n
Ratnavahini, rimr 55n
Ratnavali, mythical territory 23
Ratnavalivara, mythical territory 23
Ratnavalivarabhasa, mythical territory

Ratta, same as Rastrakuta, dynasty
310-11

Rattappadi, territory 257
Ratta-rajya 260
Raudlira, people 6711
Raunakshi, river 52n
Ravanaganga river
Raver, y 1340, 152-53

Ravi, river 3 1 , 42n, 49n, son, 6911, 205
Ravikirti, author 206
Rawalpindi District 33n, 109, 197,
323

Rawalpindi-Peshawar region 197
Ray — / Kanauj '290; (^Karnataka g6
Ray, H. G. 6n, i^xi, 49n, ison, I55n,
209n, 2490, 293n, 3o6n, sogn

Ray, K. G. in
Ray, S. 327n

Raychaudhuri, H. G, 3n, sn, 8, 30-
32, 33n, 34n, 38n, 4on, 43n, 46n,
47n, 57n, 62n, i3in, 1320, i34n,

1 7311. 189, 192-93, 195, i97n,
217, 2i8n, 23011, 243n, 246n, 247n,
275n, 287n, 2890, 290
Rayina, same as ^rdjhV 147-48
Rbhupala, officer 275-76, 281

Rennell, author 137, 329
Renou, L. 226n, 227n
Reva, 14 and n, 57n, 5811, 6411.
Reva-janaka, same as the Vindhya i4n
Rewah, territory 43n
^gveda^ work 19, son, 283, 287 and n
Rgvedic seers 287
Rhmi, see Rahma, etc* 144-45
Rk§a, mountain 6 and n, 54, 57n, 63
and n

Rksavanta, same as Rksavat sSn, 57n
Rksavat, mountain 14, sdn, sgn
Rock Edicts of Asoka 196
Rohaka, people 6 gn
Rohana, territory 324
Roliilkhand, teriitory 99
Rohita-giri 152

Rohtasgadh, locality and fort 152
Rokala, people 42n
Romaka, people and country 69 and n,
234; de§a 261
Roman world 234
Roruka, city 255n
Roshan, locality 6yn
Rsabha, mythical king 3n
Rsabha, river 57n
Rsabhadatta, Saka chief 219
Rsaka, people 7 in
Rsi, person 296
Rsi, ‘sage’ 284
Rsika, country 193
Rsika, people of ike north 71 and n
Rsika, people of the south 4on
Rsika, Rsika, river 62n
Rsikanagara, city 193
Rsikulya, river from the Mahendra 61
and n, 64 and n

Rsikulya, river from the Suktimat
62 and n

Rsyamuka, hill 327
Rsyavanta, wrong text 28, sdn
Rtukulya, wrong text 61 n
Rtumala, river, wrong text 6on
Rucaka, mythical territory 23
Rucakavara, mythical territory 23
Rucakavaravabhasa, rnythical territory

Rudamaua-bayalisi, temtory 25 7n
Ruddhakataka, people 33 and n
Rudok, locality ^33n
Rudradaman, Saka Satrap 228, 273
Rudrasena II, ^aka Satrap 185
Rudraydmala f antra 182
Rnhrni, R-ahmi, see Rahma issn,
142-44

Ruma, locality Ggn
Rumana, people 3gn
Rumimandala-kostha, 74n
Rixmmindei pillar inscription 312,
31311

Rupa, river 53n, 62n
Rupapa, people 41 n
Rupasa, people 41 and n
Rupya, mythical territory 23
Rupyavara, mythical territory 23
Rurasa, people, wrong text Ggn
R‘ Sana, people 67 and n
Rutbil, wrong text 2g3n

INDEX

383

Sahara, people 3911
Sahara, river Sin
Saharmati, river 4111, 5311, 6511
Sachau, E. 30, 48, 5111, 65^ ii2n^
12711, 19811, 22on, 241 and n, agon,
agin, goyn
Sada, river 53 n
Sadanira, river 53 and n
Sadhhava^amhiiu, Saiva ascetic 258
Saddanara, wrong text 53 n
Sadduhuka, wrong text 74n
Sadenoi, same as Satavahana 227,
229

Sadiya, locality 97n, 163
Saduktikarridmrta^ work 157
Sagala, same as Sakala, city loi
Sagar, same as Saugnr, locality 55n
Sagar, same as Ganga^agara-sangama
219, 22in

Sagara, rrythical king 222,314
sdgara, ^sea^ 116, 164 and n, i7S» 2x8,

224

Sagaranupa, territory 160, i64“h5
Sagarasamvrta, country 22n, 29
Sagarasangama, same as Gangas%ara
221

Sagar Tal inscription 132
Sagor, Sagore, same as Gangasagara
223n. 224n

Sahalatavi-gramahara, territory 263n
Saharanpur District 33n

family 291-93; kin% 292-93;
v.ukhya 291; o/" Kabul 293n; rule 292
Sahi, same as Turuska, 290 and n, 291,
293 n

Sahitya Parisad plate of Visvarupa-
sena 134

Sahya, mountain 32, 59, 60 and n,

Sgn, 64 and n, 339 and n
Sahy-adri 336-37
Sahyottara, people gyn
Saila-giri 107
Sailasa, people gSn
Sailendra dynasty 322
Sailodbhava dynasty 177-78
Saimdhava, same as Sindhu, country 78
Saimi-mandala 66n; kostha 74 and n
Saindhava, people 47 and n, 69 and n;
alphabet 127; counUy ySn, 87, 114,
231

Samika, people 35n
Saivo, community 77, 258
Sajjanalaya, kingdom 323-24
Sajjanalaya-Sukhodaya, kingdom 324
Saka, same as Saka, tribe 25n
Saka, tribe 4, 24 and n, 33n, 39n, 67
and n, 68 and n, 76, 1 99 and n, 200,

207, 222, 226, 227 and n, 228-29,
231-32, 258, 272; country 114; king
219, 225-28, 245; settlement 24-25;
year 249

Saka, same as Saka 1 7 and n, 3on
J^akadriha, wrong text 33n
Saka-dvipa, Saka-dvipa 24, 25 and n
Saka-dvipiya Brahmana 25n
Sakahrada, wrong text 33n
Sakala, same as Sakala, city loi, 203,
237-38

Sakala, city 33n, 47 and n, 113, 197-
g8, 232, 239, 244

Sakambhara, same as Sakambhan
262; de^a 260

Sakambhari, country 14, 262
Sakastan, territory 24
Sakasthana, territory 225
Saka-Yavana, people 199, 232
Saketa, city 254, 264
Sakhi, same as Sabi 290n
Saknat, same as Samatata,ro«n^9^ 152-5^
Saknat-Sankat. same as Samatata 152-
53

Saknat-Sankat-Sanknat, same as Sama-
tata, country 153-54
Sakot, locality 154
Sakra, same as Indra, god 331
Sakraiudra, holy spot 278
Sakri, river 56n
Sakrtraka, people 45 n
Saknili, river 56n
Sakta, community^ 77
Sdkldnandataranginiy work 1 83
Sakti, locality 97
Sakti, mother-goddess 18, 94
Sakti hills 62n

Saktipur copper-plate inscription 286
Saktisangama Xantra 75-76, 80, 87, 94^
122, i33n, i34n, 201-04, 207
Sakuli, river 56 and n
Sakumari, river 62 n
Sakunapatha, localify 73n
Sakya, clan iSgn, 313, 3140

said ^69

Salaha, prince 306

Silalavati, wtong text 269

Sllanka>aaa dynasty 168

Salastamhha, king i6y

SalavatT, wrong text 2i4n

Salfyatanavagga 233n

Saiem copper-plate inscription i87n

Salem District 315

Salilavati, Sallavati, wrong text 269

Salmon, river 237

Salmali-dvipa 17 and n, 24n

Salt Ocean 20

Salt Range dgn

Saiva, S^va, clan 30, sBn, 47 andn.

384 GEOORAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

201 ; 22on

Salween, river GSn, 323
galya, Madra king 238
Samacaradcva, king 124
Samapa, city 167
Samarkand, territory 33n
Samarohana, locality 287
Samatata, country 123, 149, 150-51,
156-58, 191

Sambalpur, town and Dhtrict 4.^x1^ 106,
261, 27on, 335

Sambalpur-Balangir area 335
Sambapnra, city 52n
Sambhala, locality no
Sambbar, lake 240; locality io8n
jSambhupnra, locality 320
Sambhuyasas, king 176-77
Sambodhi, holy place 219, 313
Sambor Prei-kuk, locality 320
Samdilya, gotra 29411
Sarhgraham, work 328-29
Samgrama, landlord 300
Sariijayu-deia 261
Sarhkara, god 80, 222n
Samkhavartta, locality 88
Sammoha T'antra, work 77
Samparita, people 42n
Sampgaon, locality 310
samrd'^ title 4, 5 and n
Samsarpokhri, tank 25on
Saihskdraprakdia, work 22on
Sathskriamanjari, work 92
Samudgaka, people 4511
samudra^ 5n, 116, i64n

Samudragupta, king 2-3, 156, 252,

27011, 298

Samyuttanikdya^ text 253n, 287

Sanchi, locality 272

Sandabal, Sandabala, river 49n

Sandaka, officer 275

Sandanes, ruler 227

Sandhatha, wrong text 78

Sandhya, river 163

Sandhyakaranandin, author 154, 163

S^dilya-gotra 294

Saxigat, Stkh religious establishment 250

S^gu, river i38n

Sanjan, town 261; plates of Amogha-
varsa 132

Sanjata, people^ wrong text 44n
Sanka-kota, locality 155
Sankaradeva, wrong reading i44n
l§ankaragai^a, kir^ 208
Sankasya, town 319
Sankat, same as Samatata 152-55
Sankata-grama 154-55
Sankat-Sanknat, same as Samatata
- 153 - 5 ^

Saiokha, mythical territory 23

Sa&kbalikhita, author 2i3n
J^ankhavara, mythical territory 23
Sankhavaravabh^a, mythical territory

Sankhavarta, locality 1 1 6
Sankhya system of philosophy 222
Sahkirna 332 and n, 340 and n
Sahkirnayoni 2i9n

Sanknat, same as Samatata 152-56
Sankupatha, locality or piss 66n, 72n
San-kusi, river 279
§annavati, territory 257n
Sanskrit 16, 25n, 27, 5on, 66n, 79,
222, 300, 3^-155 316; ^o,nguage
2g6n; lexicons 3i4n; literature 183;
names prasastis agQiXy ilokasQ.^%
words 210, 315

Santal Parganas District 44n, 62n,
122, 333
Santarem 329

Santat, same as Samatata 156
Santikara II, king 176
Santipura, locality 105, 122
Sannyasin, ^ascetid 223
Saora, people 39n

Sapadalaksa, country io8n, 262n,
mountain 1 08
Sapt-Abhira 78

Sapta-dvipa Vasumati 17, 20, 24-25
Saptagrama, locality 223
Saptakotisvara, deity 109
Sapta-Malava 46n
Saptar i-kunda, holy pool 278
Sapta-Sindhu 9
Saptasiti-pratijagaranaka 257
Sapta-srhga, hill 1 13-15, 231
Saptavati, river 64n
Sarabhahga-kunda, holy pool 278
Sarada, g ddess 88, 93, 116; temple 93
Sarada-ma^a 81, 93, 116
Saradanda, people 30
Saraganus, king 227
Saraikala railway junction 289
Saraja, people 42n

Sarasvata, people 16, 42 and n, 5 in,
129

Sarasvati, river in Bengal 120
Sarasvati, river 16, 30, 42n, 48 and n,
49n, 5on, 5in, 64n, 65n, 99, no;
valley 129

Saravati, river 2i4n, 267-68, 2690, 270
Saravati, Saravati-nagari, city 270
Sarayu, river 48n, 49 and n, 50n, 5 in,
64n, 84, 104, 322
Sardi, locality 93
Sardis, tow i 25
Saridvati, river 5gn
Sarkar, J. N. i04n
garkaray^ta, locality 6411

INDEX

385

Sarkar Satgaon 3711
Sarnath^ locality 313
Saipa, wron^ text 78
Sarpih-samudra, Sarpis Ocean 17, 22
Sarsat, same as Sarasvata, country 5 in
Sarsati, same as Prabhasa-Sarasvatl,
river 52n

Sarsuti (Sarasvati) valley 42n
sdrthavdha 275
Sarva, river 52n
Sdrvahhauma gn, 4

Saxvabhauma, elephant 331 and n,
33 ^ 2 . 339

Sarvaga, people 45n
Sarvakamika, holy stone 278
Sarvananda, author 268
Sarvani image 149
Sarvaprstha, sacrifice 219
Sarvastivadin — school 269; vinqya 273
Sarvavati, wrong text 268
Sairvesa-kerala, territory 92
Sarwa, river 5 in
Saryata^ clan 44n

iSasanka, Gauda king 105, 121, 124,
177, 186

Sasikliadrika, people 46n

Sassan, progenitor of the Sassanians 171,

215

Sassanian, Sassanidac, dynasty 33n,
171, 200, 215, 239
Sasthavatij river 64n
Sastri, H. P. 75, 77, 127
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta 3i7n, 32 in

Sastri, S. N. Majumdar 229n, 23 in
Sasvata, people 42n
Satadru, people 33n ; river 48n, 49 and
n, 5 in, 52n, 63 and n, 640, 65n, 238
Satadruja, people 33 and n
Satakami I, SdtavSmna king 227
Satakarni dynasty, same as Satavaliana
dynasty 273

Satakarni Satavdhana king — Gautami-
putra, 227-28, 2 73; Gautamlp^tra-
Taj ha 229; Vdsiytkiputra 228
Sataldar, Satladar, river 51, 52n
Satapatha Brdhmana, work 2
Satara District sgn, 187, 194
Satara-Ratnagiri region 187
gatarudra, same as gatadru, river 51 n
gatav^ana dynasty 14, 27, 226, 227
and n, 229, 247

gatavahaniy-ibara, gatavahaniya-
rastra 247

Satgaon, city 13 m, 134, 136-37, 154-55
Satira, river 53n

Satlaj, river 31, 49n, 5 in; valley 33n
Satpahcdsaddeiavibhdga^ text 75 and n,
76-77, 79-80, 122
Satpuras, mountain range 43n

sattra 276
Satrap 29311
Satsantaja, river 560
Satsura, people 440
Sattipalli-Jaripata, locality 245
SBXtxxra^TvSL^ people 44n
Satuvan-asramaka, 276
Satyabhama 218
Saubhaka, people 35n
Saugor Island 223n
Saulika, people 39n
gaumimandala-kostha 74n
Saumya, mythical territory 5n, 22n
Saundatd, locality 310-11
gaundikera, people 44n
gaurasena, Saurasena, people and
country 86 and n, 109-10, 1 13
Saurastra, people and country 42n, 46
and n, 78, 82, 94, 209, 2i9n, 260,
332n, 333 - 34 > 33 S> 339 and n;
forest 336-37
Sausalya, people 30
Sausson, author 135, is^n
Sauvira, people and country 33 and n,
4m, 47 and n, 52n, 78, 2i3n, 219
and n, 232, 255n, 273; country 113;
desa 86

Sauviraka, same as Sauvira 78

Sava, river 5 in

Savana, prince 22n

Savaiiga, people 37n

gavara, tribe 39 and n, 6 in, 269;

foresters 39n; woman 327
Savaravati, Savaravati , river 268-69
Savathi, same as gravasti in Bengal 297
Savatthi, same as gravasti, city 264
Sarvaprstha, rite 41 n
Sayambhara-desa 260
Schoff, author i86n, i87n, 225n, 2270,
229n

Scythia, territory 24, 114, 233
Scythian — people 24-25; conquest 205
Sebaka dynasty 244
Seistan, territory 24, 293n
Sekandxa Police Station 308
Seleucid empire 198
Semyla, port 226
Sen. S. iign, 127, i28n
Sena dynasty 118, 156, 157 and n,
158, i64n; kingdom 153; kings 106;
rule 157

Senart, M, 272
Seonath, river 56n
Setakannika, town 2i4n
Setaviya, town 264

Set-Mahet, locality 254, 297; copper^-
plate inscription 256
Setu, Setubandha, same as Setubandha
Ramesvara 9,ion, i in, 12 and n, 38n

386

OEOORAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Sctubandha-RameSvara, locality 13,
38n

Setuka, people 38 and n

Seuna, Scuna-dela iii

Seva-de!§a 339 and n

Sevana, Sevana-dc§a 78,86, 111-112,

339

Scvara, wron^ text 78
Shahabad District 42 n, 152, 332, 335 »
338

Shabjahanpur District 30 in
Shama Sastry, R. i 233 n, SS^n
Shams-£-Siraj ‘Afif 180-81
Shamsuddxn Firilz Shall, SuV^ 158
Shamsuddin Ilyas ShaJh, Sultan 135^^
Shan, tribe 66n
Shahr-i-Lakhnauti i58n
Shanrat, rioer ^tn

Sheikh ‘Alauddin Islam Khan 299
Sherghati, locality 21 r
Shivapuii District 4.4n, 262n
Shmahina, wron^ text 5in
Sholapur ^District 194
Shorkot, locality Sgn
Sialkot, town 33n, loi, 197, 203, 232,
^238-39, 244; District 113, 205
Siam, €o;mtry 66n, 323-24
Sibi, people and country 252-53, 261
Sibi, prince 253
Sibsagar District 163
Sidau, pass 72n
Siddhamatrka, alphabet 126-27
Siddhantavagi^a, H. gn, ggn, 2o6n
Siddha-patha, pass y^n
Siddhavam, holy spot tzyBn
Siddhi-Kerala, territory 81, 91-92
Sidh-Gatir, community i29n
Sien, tribal name 66n
Sigana, people yon
Sighroda, river ^yn
Sihabahu, king 170
Sihapura, city 1 70
Sijistan, territory 24
Sikandar, same as Alexander 289
Sikh, community 250
Sikhandin, Taksa 264
Siladitya, Maitraka king 208 and n
Siladitya-Harsavardhana, king 326
Silahatta, town and territory 78 and n,
84, 86, 104-05, III
Silhat, Sil-hat, same as Sylhet 155-56
Silimpur inscription 297
Simha, lion-king 316
SiihhabaJiu, king 316
Smhagiri, hill 324
Simhakalpa, city 316
Siihhakesarin, king 316
Simhala, country and people 22n, 78,
BS^and n, no, 114, 316

Simhala-dvTpa ii and n, 13, 262, 316
Simhamana, king 176-77
Sirhhapura, city no, 114, 170-71
Siihhapura, locality 324
Simla, city 33n, 86n, 339
Sind, territory 5in, 114, 116, 205, 209,
231, 260; Lower 230; Northern 32,
203

Sindh, rtver^ same as Sindhu 52n, 290
Sindh, territory 52n, 127, 239
‘Sindh Sea* 52n

Sindhu, river to and n, i in, 25 and n,
48 and n, 4Qn, f^in, 52 and n, 53 nLj
65 and n, 66n, 68 and n, 69 and n,
78, 114, 182 and n, 213 n, 2i9n,
236-38, 260, 273, 305. 322,

339 and n, 341 n; mouths ion, 13
Sindhu, people 30, 33
Sindhu-dela ii^

Sindhuraja, king 41 n
Sindhu-sagara, confluence 5211, 337
Sindura, mythical territory 23
Sihghaoadeva, king T44n
Singhbhum District 170, 176-77, 194
Singupuram, locality 170-71
Singur, locality ^tyo
Sinha, Dalipnarayan 250
Sinha, G* 3o8n

Sinibahu, Sinibabu, river 58 and n
Sinibali, river 58n
Sinihahu, river 58n
Siimar in

Sipra, river 5Jn, 54 and n, 205-06, 21 1,

.325

Sipra, Sipra, river 57 and n
Siraj, locality 152
Sirala, people 4 in

Sircar, D. G* 2on, 24n, 30, 32, 33n,
36 n, 4on, 43 n, 47n, 48, 73n, Bqn,
logn, ii5n, ii6n, iign, i24n, i28n,
r4on, i4in, iGsn, i82n, 18311, 190,
2o6n,225n,229n, 235n, 24in, 24511,
26Qn,3om,304n, soyn, 30911 , 3i3ii>
3i8n, 32on,32m, 322n, 323n, 324n,
325n, 328n, S 33 ^> 34 ^ 0 X 1 ,

34Tn

SirHnd, locality 290

Sirlndhra, people By and n

Siriptolemaios, king 227

Sirmur hills 49n

Sirohi District 42n, 339

Sirsa, locality 49n

Sirva, faulty text ^yn

Si^ir-adri, same as Himalaya 277

Sita, Ik^vaku queen 32, 327

Sita, river 65 and n, 66n, 67, 68 and n

Sltakmids^, holy pool 107

Siteraja, river 56n

Sitoda, Sitoda, lake i8n

INDEX

387

Sittang, river 3x9, 324
Siva, god 79, 81, 103-04, 1 16, 211,
221, 223

Siva, goddess 87, 183 and n
Siva, river from the Vindhya 57n
Siva, river 54x1, 6411
Siva, village 24a
Siva-desa 26 1
Sivakara II, king 256
§iva-linga 102
Siva-Maiiakala, god 325
Sivapaura, people 69 and n
Sivapura, locality 253
:Siva Purdna 26, 243
givaraja, chief ijS

givaraja, Rd^trakuta chief 187 and n
^ivatattvaratndkaray work 96
givi, prince 253 andn; cmntry 119
Siwalik, range of mountain 4.^x1^ 108,263
Siwalik-Kumaon region 108
Siyaka, king 210a
Skanda, god 22n, 250, 265
Skandagupta, king 4, 192
Skanda-Kkrttikeya, god 222, 294

Skanda Purdm 57n, I28n 129, 259,
263n, 283

Skandavarman I, king 8
Skandavarman II, king 8
Skythia, same as Scythia 225
Smith, V.A. ssn, 225n, 23 in, 272
Smndr, town 147
Soan-Kousi, river 280
Sodrai, people 32
Sodrian Alexndria, city 230
Sogdian, people 35n
Sogdiana, country 25, 52n
Sokala, people^ wrong text 43n
Soma, deity 34on
Somabhiseka, holy spot 277
Somadatta, chief 178
Soma-giri, holy spot 278
Somali, same as Somaliland 233
Somanatha, dei;^ 95, 1x5
Soma-tirtha, holy spot 278
Somavamsi, royal f amity i2n, 178-79,
335

Somesvara, deity 88, 115
Somesvara I, king^ 210
Somesvara III, king 333
Somnath, same as Somanatha, holy
place 52n

gona, river 54 and n, 64n, Ssn
Sonargaon, cip 13 in, 134, 136 and n,
137 and n, 138, 154, 157-5^. 299
Sone, same as Sona, river 54n, 55n
Sonepur, locality 51 n
Songaon, same as Sonargaon, city 154
Sonpur, Sonepur, town^ 620, 168, 178
Sopara, toim 4on, 226-27, 229, 261,

27412, 333

Sorenson, S* i75n, 284^

Soro, localify 176

Sotthivati, same as guktimatl, river
and city 56n
Souppara, port 226
Sourasenoi, people 109
Sousikana, localify 231
South Kanara District 92
South Pole 7
^arda, locality 25 and n
Srama^ 196

gramana, Savara woman 327
gravasti, gravastl, city 189, 224, 254
and n, 264, 270 and n, 297-98
gres&apura, town 320
gresdiavarman, kir^ 320
Sre^thin 275, 281
gri-Bhagavat, same as giva 87n
gricandra, king sBn, 1 50-1 51, 156
gridharadasa, author 157
gridharanarata, king 149, 156
grihata, grihatta, ierriUry i33n, 134,

i 50 - 5 i> 155-56, 264
Srikakulam, town and District 6 in, 167,
169, 171, 175, 332
Srikandia, territory 98, 113
grikanthaka, couniry 108
Srt^Karmdraktda 295-96
gri-Korhka^a, same as Kohkana
83 and n, 98
Srikrpwklrtariay work 221
griksetra, locality 319, 324
griksetra, territory 335
gri-Kumara, king 326
grikuntala, country 107-08
grimanta, merchant 221
Srinagar, city 93

Srinagara, same as Pa^aliputra 210,
248, 252; bhiikti 248-40, 251-32^
visaya 252

Srlprihivivallabhay title I45n
gri-Pulumavi, gri-Pulumayi, king 227,
272

Sripur, locality 136 and n
grirariiga, griranga, Srirahgam localify
82, 96

Srirahgapattana, same as Seringa-
patam 96

grisaila, hill 92, 94*95 > 336
Srivallabha, title I45n
grivara, author 204
grivijaya, city 171 n, 322
grhgavat, same as grhgin, mythical
mountain i8n, 20, 2 in
groni, nver 55n
grihgin, mythical mountain 20
Stein, A, 8n, 93, 195, 262n, 328n, 337
Stewart, C, 152, 229

388

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Sthala-kunda, holy spot 277
Sthanunandin, officer 275
Sthavira School 269
Sthxina, locality 21411
Stxi-rajya 261 and n
stupa 214, 286
Subhakarasimha, king i ySn
Subhahkarapataka grant 298
Subhahkarasiihha, king 178
Subrahmanya, sani£ as Klarttikeya, god

81, 91-92 ^ , , ,

Subrahmanya-ksetra, holy place 92
Subrahmanya Sastri, Kl. S, 342
Sucaksu, river 66n
Sucimat, wrong text 62n
Sudama, river 6211
Sudaman, mountain 237
Sudharmapura, locality 319
Sudharmavati, locality 324
Sudkawan, cip 1310
Sudra, people 32^ 46 and n, 271
Sudra-kula 34 and n
Sugda, territory 25n
Suhma, country and people 37n, 123,

1685 191-92, 217, 246; desa 103, 122
Snhmottara, people 37 n
Snjaraka, people 36n
Sujata, people 4411
SukejSa, people 45n

Sukhodaya, Sukhothai, kingdom 323-24
Sukrsa, river 54n
Suktel^ river 62n

Suktimanta, same as Suktimat, mountain
6211

Suktimanti, river 28, 56n
Snktimat, mountain Son, 6 in, 62 and
n,^ 64 and n

Suktimati, river 56 and n
Sukumari, river 62n
Sulaunan, Arab merchant I35n5 142-
, 44 . 147

Sulakara, people 35n
Sulika^ Siilika, people 35n, 36n, 68
Sultan, title 157; Firuz Shah 180
Sultanpur^ locality 5on, 155
Sumaha, river 54n
Sumaheya, people 42n
Sumandala copper-plate inscription
174

Sumahgalavildsim^ work 269
Sumatra, country 322; Eastern 322
Sumem, mythical mountain qh, 12 and n,
13, 17-18, 56, 321 ancfn
Sumina, people 4 in
Summativijaya, author 270
Sunamukha, people 69 and n
Sunarmada, people 4in
Sundarbans 90

Sundarf, princess 170

Sun-god 3 c6

Siini, fiver 56 and n, 62n

Sun-kosi, river 279-80

Sun-rise mountain 9-13, 15

Sun-set mountain 9-13, 15

Suparsva, supporting lange i8n; people

3511 ^ ^

Su-p*o-fa-su-tu, river same as Subha-
vaslu , Suvastu 1 8 1
Suppara, same as Sopara 226-27
Supratika, elephant 331 andn, 332 and
n, 339. 34<=> and n, 341 and n
Suprayoga, river 39 and n
Sura, river 53n
Sura, officer 300
Suraha, river 54n
SurMa, people 41 and n
Sura-ocean 1 7 and n
Surapala, Pdla king 251
Surapura, locality 300-01
Suraraja, same as Indra 32
Surasa, river 54 and n, 63 and n, 64n
Sura-samudra 22
Surasana, same as Khurasana 84n
Surasena, Surasena, people 30-31, 78,
86 and n, 109

Sura§tra, country and people 42 and n,
98, 192, 209, Qign, 225, 228, 232,
263, 273. 332-33

Surat, locality 57n; District 207, 226,
236

Surata, people 44n

Suratha, river 54n

Suratha, same as Surastra 272-73

Surpakara, Surpakara, people 4on

Surpanakha 261

Surparaka, Surparaka, port and people
40 and n, 226-27, 261, 274n, 29on,
333

Surya, mythical territory 23
Surya, river 33n
Suryamukha, wrong text 261
Suryaraka, wrong text 4on, 29on
Surya-vaihsa 86

Suryavamsi Gajapati dynasty 91
Surya- vamsi kings 106
Suryavara, mythical territory 23
Suryavaravabhasa, mythical territory 23
Susthitavarman, king 6in
Susoma, river 64n
Sutika, people 38n
Sutpalavati, river Son
Suttampdta, text 189, 255n, 264-65,
271-72, 274, 287; commentary 288n
Suttapitaka-Anguttaranik^a i, 253n
Sutudri, river 4gn
Suvaha, river 54n

Suvar^abhumi, territory 23, 6611, 72*

ikdex 389

73n, 232

Suvarnadvipa, same as Suvamabhumi

o ^3

Suvarnagrama, city 299, 302, 323
Suvarnapura, locality 178
Suvarna-Rupyaka-dvipa 23
Suvastu, rimr and territory 182
Suvela, mountain 9, 13
Suvidhinatha, Tirthankara 308-09
Suviraka, same as Sauvira 78
Suvrata, prince 252-53
Svabhravatl, river 65n
Svacchanda-pataka^ locality 276
Svantargiri, people gSn
Svapada, people 4111
Svargabbaumaka, wrong text J2n
Svargabh’mi, wrong text 72n
Svargabhumika, wrong text 71 and n
Svarnabhumika, 71
Svarnabhusita, wrong text 7 in
Svarna-kaurfikI, rwer 279
Svasa, mistake for Khasa 45n
Svayambhuramanaj mythical territory
2in, 23

Sveta j mythical mountain 20
Sveta-dvipa-pati Madhava, god 222n
Svetagiri, hill 81, 93
SvetavaraJba> Svetavar^asvamin god
275-76, 280, 281 and n
Swat, river and territory 182, 289;

t alley 184, 260
Swat-Kashmir region no
Sydrh. Syam, Sydma 66n
gyama 23
Syama-rattha 66n
gyeni, river 55n

Sylhet, town territory 105, in, 151,
155-56? 164; District i33n, 134,
149, 161

Syrastrene, same as Surastra 225-26

'Tabaqdt-i-^Ndsiri^ work i34n, 152-57,
1580, 263

Tada-grama, village 294 and n
Tagara, town 227
Tagaxmg, locality 319
Tagdumbash, river 66n
Tailaihga, Tailahga, country 16, 82, 83
and n, 94“953 99?. 128 and n
Tailinga, same as Tailanga 78
Tairabhukti, Tairbhukti country 84,
85 and n, loi, 106
Taittirika, people 41 n
Tajik Republic 67n
I’akka, country 301
Takkadesiya-vibhasa 301
Takkola, locality 72n, 232
Taksa, prince Sgn
Taksaka, people 12911

Taksasila, city ssn, 6gn, 193, 197,
246, 289, 323
Talagana, people 35 and n
Talajaihgha, clan 44n
Talakad, city 4on
Talakata, zjurong text 4on
Talakuna, people 35n
Talanaga, people 35n
Talikata, city and pmople 4on
Talikota, battlefield 96
Tamalipta, people 172
Tamara, people 46 and n, 74n
Tamasi, river 5-jn
Tamasa, river 55 and n
Tamasa, people 350, 41 and n, 46n
Tamba, territory 257
Tambara, people 44n
Tambaravari, river si 7, 325
Tambraphede, locality 280
Tambura, people 41 n
Tamil, language send people 16, 128-29,
21 1 ; country 247 and n; Nadu 336
Tamilaka, same as Dravida 229
Tamiuk, locality 17?? 218
Tampaka, mr\.ng text

Tamra, territory 3 1 7
Tamra Amna, river 5 in
Tamra-dvipa 316, 319
Tamralihga, territory S^J^y 3^2
Tamralipta, territory and people 70 and
n, 123, 191, 193,216, 218, 223, 246
Tamraliptaka, people 37 and n, 38n
Tamralipd, territory 123, 173, 218
Tamraliptika, 37 ^? 123

Tamraparna, country s'^^

Tamraparna, riier 64n
Tamraparna, Tamraparni, division
of Bharatavarsi 5n, 22n
Tamraparni, country 316-17, 324
Tamraparni, river 60 and n, 64 and n,
65n» 243, 317, 325
Tamraparni, river 82, 96-97
tdv.rapatta 276

Tamrapattana, city 3i7n, 320
Tamrapura, locality 317, 320

Tamra-rastra 315-17
Tamravari, riier 6on
Tamravarna, river 5 in, 6on
Tamravarni, river 6on
Tanaka, Tanaka, Tanapa, Tanasa,
people 35n
T^da, locality 141
Tangana, Tangana, people 35 and n,
45 and n, 68 and n, 7on3 78, iii
Tanganapura, town 35n
T^ang annals 182
Tdng-shuy work 161
Tanja, city 315-17
Tahjai, locality 317

390

GEOGRAPHY OF ANGIRNT AND MSDIBVAI. INDIA

Tanjakkur, locality 317
Tanjavur (Thanjavur) 95-96; District
38n

Tanjavur-Tirucirappalli region 99
Tanjore (Thanjavur) 316, 342; area

317

Tankana, people 78
tantra 75, 79, 83, 103, 201-02, 204
Tantracuddmaniy work 183
Tanirasdra, work 76 and n, 183
Tantricism 1 1 7

Tantric 78n, 80, 115; Arydvarta 106;
influence 77; literature no; territorial
divisions 1 14; texts 77, 91 ; writers 79
Tapasa, people 4.1 n

Tapi, river 53n, 57 and n, 63 and n,
64n5 65n, 83 and n, 98
Taprobane, country 316, 330
Taptakumda, Taptakunda, hot water
pool 84-85, 102, 107
Tapti, river syn, 98, 113
Tarai region 20
Taranatha, author 420, 167
'Tdrikh’-i-Firuz Shaki, work 180-81
Tarkari, localities in U. P. and Bengal
^ 294-97 ^

Tarnak, river ig8

Tarupana, people 4in

Ta-tsin kingdom 323

Tatta-desa 319

Taundikera, clan 44x1

Tawney, G. H, 210 n

Taxila, locality 246

Teesta, river 5on

Telengana, territory 95 and n

Telugu, language 16, 95, 169-70

Telugu-Goda, dynasty 99

Telugu country 95, 169

Telunga Brahmana 1 29

Ter, locality 227

Tewar, locality 43n, 334-35

Thai — people 322 ; prince 323 ‘y principality

323

Thailand, country 323
Thakkana, king 292
Thana District 95, 225-26, 229, 261,
274 ^, 333

Thaneswar, town 5on, 98, 108, 121,
206, 208

Thanjavur, town and District 316
Thar, desert 97
Tharpura, people 44x1
Thaton, locality 319, 324
Thawarawadi Sri-Ayudhya, city 324
Thevenot, author i38n
Thornton, E, 279
Thumboor, locality 280
Tiastenes, ruter 225n, 226-27, 229
Tibet, country 330, 103

Tibetan 182; author 167; evidence 184,
329; origin people 103; translator
265

Tibeto-Ghinese peoples 34n
Tilakhala, people 30
Tilamga, Tilahga, country and people
Ssn

Tilahga-desa 260
Tilhar, locality 301 n 1
Tilihga, same as Tilahga 95
Tillitaka, people 4on
'Ttloyapannatfi, work 2 in, 22, 24
Tippera copper-plate grant 150
Tippera District 134, 149, 151, 156-
58, I 6c

Tippera-Noakhali region 156-57
Tira, river 53n

Tirabhukti, territory 84n, 10 1, 248-49,

323

Tirhut, same as Tirabhukti, territory
20, 5on, loi, 323; Division 248
Tirmidh, locality 52n
tlrtha 77, 219-22, 224, 285, 287-88,
336

I'irthacintdmaxLi^ work 222
Tirthahkara 308-09
Xtrtkasdray work 222
Tiruchirappali District 38n
Tirumalai inscription 2, 132-33, 244
Tirunelveli District 10, sSn, 6on, 317
Tirupati, locality 92, 115-16
Tista, same as Teesta, river 161
Tisya-mahagrama, locality 324
Tisyavapi, tank 324
Fittira Jdtaka 73n
Toba, wrong text 58n
Tod, J, 276n

Tomara, people 35 and n, 46 and [n,
74 and n, 216
Tonk District 205
Tons, river 55n
Tonva, river 58n
Tope, ^ stupa* 286
Torama’ a, king 108, 291-92
Tosala, Tosala, territory and people
41 n, 43 and 167, 187
Tosala, locality 187

Tosali, Tosali, city ar d territory 167,
169, I74-7£„ 177, 187, 333; Xorth
43n, 174-77; South 174-78
Toya, river 58n

Trailokyacandra, Candra king 133-34,
150-51

Trailokyavijaya, goddess 88, 116
Traipura, people 4 in, 43 and n, 29on
Transylvania, territory 21 1
Trapura, people 43n
Travancore, territory 11-12, 32, 6on,
96, 317, 322, 325, 336; hills 11-12,

INDEX

391

32> 6on, 96, 317, 322, 336

Travels of Cornelius la Bruyan 135
Travels of Marcopoloy 14211
Trayambaka, same as Tryambaka 81
Tree of Pray^a 307
Trenckner, author igSii, 23211
Tribhaga, river 6 in
Tribhuvana-mahadevi I, qmen 148
Tribhuvanamabe^vara, deity 321
Tridiva, river fom the Mabendra 61
f Md n

Tridiva, river from the Pariyatxa 53n
Tridiva, river from ike 56 and n

Tiigarta, people and territory 46 and n
Trigunavartta 88 and n
Trihakumbba, principality
Trikdi^dasesay work 26^ 122, 265, 303
Trilinga, same as Tilanga, Telunga,
etc. 95

Trilocana Kadamba 188
Trilocanapala, Sdhi king 292
Trilokasundari, queen 170
Trikuta-malaya, territory 244
Trikuta-'malay-adhipatiy title 244
Tri-malaya 244
Trimbak, locality 155
Triparhcaka, wrong text 8 in
Tripatbi, R, S. 2o6n, 2o8n, 304n
Tripura, same as Tripuri 43n
Tripura, same as Tippera 81, 93
Tripuri, ctty 43n, 333, 335, 338 and n
Trisaga, river 6 in
Trisama, river 6 in, 64 and n
Trisandhya, river 640
Trisrotas, river 5on
Trivandrum, city 92, 342
Triyama, river 64n
Triyambaka, same as Tryambaka 81 n
Trtiya, river 50 and n
Tryambaka, locality 93
Tryambakesa, god 81 n
Tryambakesvara Siva-linga 93
Tugbluk dynasty 180
Tugbril Kban, ruler 158m
Tuhinasikbarin , same as Himalaya ion
Tukhara, people 34n, 68n, 195, 272
Tukbaristan, territory 34n
Tumain, locality 41 n, 44n, 272n;

inscription 272n
Tumana, people 35n
Tumana, city 440
Tumbara, people 44n
Tumbavana, Tumbavana-nagara,
city 4in, 44n, 271, 272 and n
Tumbavana, people 41
Tumboor, locality 280
Tumbula, people 44n
Tumbura, people 44 and n
Tumkur — Distnct 245-46; Taluk 245

Tummana, city 44n
Tummura, people 44 and n
Tumuva, people 44n
Tunda, people 68n

Tundakera, Tundikera, Tundikeia,
clan 44 and n

Tungabbadra, river 59 and n, 64n, 65n

Tungakuta, holy spot 278

Tungana, same as Tangana 35n

Tunga, river 96

Tur^a, people 44n

Turamina, people 41 and n

Turasita, people 4 m

'Tricks:^— people 291; admiral 330;

Musalmdns 29, 291; Sultans 95
Turko-Tibetan origin 292
Turpapada, people 36n
Turuska, Turusakaka, people 7, 29,

29 on

Tirrvasu, prince 20on
Tusara, same as Tukbara 34 and n,
4in5 68 and n
Tustikara, people 44n
Tyndis, locality 22 gn

people^ 4on

Udabbanda, Udabbandapura, city
33n, 5 m, igSn, 290-91, 293
XJdabanda, same as Udabbanda 5 in,
291

Udaipur Division 43, 336
Udakabhandapura, same as Udabban-
dapura 290

Udakadhara, people 33n
Udakabanda, same as Udabbanda 293
Uddna, text 288
Udancah 267

Udaya, mythical mountain 9, 236
Udayaditya, king 25 yn
Uday-adri, same as Udaya, mountain
I in, 1211

Udaypur, locality 263
Udbhida, people 40 and n
Udbhira, people 400
Uddandapura, locality 127
Uddisa, same as Orissa 183-84
Ud^yana, country 182, 183 and n, 184
Udicya, people and territory 29, 36 and
n, 37n, 46n, 80, i86n, 268
Udipi, locality 92, 109; Taluk 92
Udra, people and territory 167, i68n,
169, 175 and n, 176-78, 182
Udra-Utkala region 176
Udumbara, people 30
Udunpur, locality 127
Udupa, Udupa-pura, locality 92
Udyanakamaru, Udyanamam, territory
73

Udyanamakara, Udyanamarura,

392

GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL. INDIA

XJdyanamaskara, wrong texts 7311
Ugraptira, locality 32a
Ujain, same as Ujjain 5111
Ujeni, same as Ujjayinl 21 1
Uijain, citjr 5411, 94, 97-98, 21 1, 264,
304, 306, 330

XJjjanakamarUa same as Udyana-
J^mam 7311

XJjjayani, same as XJjjayini 273
Ujjayini, cj>3i, 5111, 54n,57n,76,93,
gSn, ggn, 184, 189, 205-07, 208 and n,
209, 21 o and 211-125 225n5 2265
227 and n, 264, 266, 272, 325, 337
XJjjeni, Ujjeni, same as IJjjayiiii 21 1,
2645 27x5 325n
TJkhnrria Ghaut, locality 280
Uma-kunda, holy pool 278
XJmapatidhara^ author 296n
Und, locality 33n5 5 in, 52n5 igSn, 290
Undikavatika grant 187
Uniyara Tahsil 206
Unmargasila, locality 323
Unmatta-Gahga, river 338 and n
U. P. 3O5 35n5 son, 99, 104, no, 114,
129, i74n. 204, 213, 214x15 254-56,
297-9B, 305, 323 “^ 24 > 336, 340;

Eastern 46, 159; Korth-‘Western 3on
Uparika, ^ viceroy^ 275
Upasthuna, locality 21411
XJraga, people yon
Uragapura, city 246n
TJrasa, Urasa, country 35n, 246
tJrdhvamanu, Urdhvamaru, people
69 and n

U-rgyan, territory 182

Urjaguda, same as Jaguda, people 68n

XJvTi'sM, ^locality 49n

Urna, tJrna, people 36 and n, 45n

Urnshin, town 148

Urshfm, town 147

Urshm, town i/yj

Urvasi-kunda, holy pool 278

U.S.A. yGn, 21 1

Usika, people 3gn

Usinara, king 252-53

Usira, same as IJ^ira-giri 48n

Usira-giri, hill 2i4n

UiSiradhvaja, same as Usira-giri 2i4n

U^tra yin

Ustrakarna, 71 and n
Utkala, people and country I2n5 16,
42 and n, 43n, 78, 85 and n, 91,
loy, 129. 142, 159, 168 and n, lyi,
173-74^ i75^> 176-77. 217, 3195
339 and n, 341 and n
Utkala-kula 141
Utpala, author 52n
Utpalavati, river 60 and n, 65n
Utsavasanketa, people 200

Uttamabhadra, people 43n
Uttamaka, people 4311
Uttamarna, XJttamarnaka, people 43
and n

Uttara-Kosala, Uttara-ICosala country
3I5 270 and n

Uttara-K-uru, people and territory gn,
18-195 20 and n, 21, 45n
Uttara-Kuru-varsa 2 in
Uttara-Narmada, people 41 and n
Uttar apatha, territory 29, s6n, 65n,
8O5 195-97. 1 99-200, 213, 2i4n, 230,
289, 293

ZJttararamacarxta, work 326
Uttar Pradesh 16, 124, 141, 247
Uzain, same as Ujjain 209

Vacaspatimisra, author 222
Vada, territory 256
Vadapadraka, village 256
Vadati, people Bgn

Vadhadhana, Vadhavana, same as
Vatadhana, people 32
Vadhusara, river 48n
Vadnagar, locality 207
Vaguri, country 260
Vdhana 331
Vahela, people 44n
Vahi, demon 238

Vahika, same as Vahika, country 84n
Vahika, country and people 84n, loi,

237-39

Vahika-grama 238

Vahlika, same as Vahlika, country and
people ion, 236-37

Vahlika, people and country 32, 78, 236-

37 .

Vahni, same as Agni 331 and n
Valiuka, people 36

Vaidarbha, country and j eople 39 n,
78, Ssn, 86, 113, 125; desa 83
Vaidarbhi, goddess 82
Vaidarbhi-riti 186
Vaideha, people 271
Vaidesya, same as Vaidisa 338 and n
Vaidika, people 43n
Vaidikavai^navasaddcara, work 77
Vaidisa, city 208-09, 264, 338
Vaidisa, people 4 in, 43 and n
Vaidisa, wrong text 4on
Vaidurya tnythical territory 23
Vaidya, P. JL. i59n, 296n, 3i4n, 3i6n
Vaidyanatha, locality 81, 89-90
Vaidyanatha-Mabadeva, god 90
Vaigai, river 6on, 243, 325
Vaigrama, village 297
Vaihand, city 5 in, 52n, igBn, 290;
fort 291

Vaihayasi, river 6411

iNDEJt 393

Vaijayanti^ Vaijayantikosa^ work 2on, 26,
165-665 20in, 21O5 289-90
Vaimkatesa, Sin
Vainly river 5911
Vairadra, wrong text 78
Vairajanatha, god 89 and n, 116
Vairat5 country 78

Vairata, country 865 lOO, 113; deia 8311
Vairisirhha, king 2 ion
Vaisakyaj Vaisikya, people 390
Vaisali, city 319-20
Vaisnava 250; saint 243
Vaisvanara, same as Agni 2i9n
Vaisvanara-kunda, holy pool 278
people 34n

Vaisya-Sudra-kula 34n
Vaisyata, river 59n
Vaitarani, river 58 and n, gi, 171, 173,
2x30

Vaivamika coral 234
Vaivasvata Manu 3n
Vajaj locality 256
Vaj^a, people 4m
Vajika, people 39n
Vajivasikaj peo^e gSn
V^ikasika, people 3911
Vaijayanti, city 191
Vajrabhava, holy spot 278
Vajravara, mythical territory 23
Vajresi-mukha 88n
Vaka, Vaka, people 36, 201
Vakataka dynasty 185-86, 188-90
Vakpati Munja, king 2x0
Vakranta, country 84, 102, 202
Vaksu, river 5 in, 66n
Vala, locality 208
Valabhi, city 208
Valadantika, people 37n
Valaka, river 58n

Valgudar, locality 249-5 2, 254-55;

inscriptions 251
Valguvahini, river 56n
Valhika, country and people 32, 5 in,
i45n, i82n, 270
Vallabha, author i8an
Vallabharaja, Vallabha king 142, 144,
145 and n, 146
ValloLacarita^ work 155
Valya, wrong text 47n
Vamana, elephant 332 and n, 338 and
n, 34on, 341 and n
Vamana, god 303, 331 and n, 332
and n, 338 and n, 34 on, 341 and n
Vamana, locality 184
Vamana Furdna 13, 22, 26, 240, 285
Vamanasvamin, god 303, 306
Vambhanav^aka, locality 260
Vaihga, same as Vahga, country and
people 41 n, 78, 81, 100; deia 85

Vamgeya, same as Vai^eya, people yjn
Vamksu, river 7, 66n, 182 and n, 200,
236, 3i5n

Vamsadhara, Vaiiisadhara, river 6i
and n

Vaihiadharini, river 62n
Varhsakara, wrong text 6 in
Varhmpatha, locality or pass 72n, 73n
Vana, wrong text 58n
Vanadaraka, preople 4on
\’anasavatthi, city 271
Vana-savhaya, city 264, 271
Vanavasa, city igxn
Vanava^aka, Vanavasaka, P^h^

38 and n, 3rn
Vanav^i, city 188, 192, 271
Vanavasika, people 38n, 3gn
Vandyaghatiya, family name 268

people 3 .nd country 10, 13, 30,

36 and n, 37n, 70 and n, 78, 90,
106, III, 122-23, ^ 3 ^? 132 ^d

n, 133 and n, 134 and n, 149-5^^
154, I56-57> 15811, 159, 164-66,

168, i7i-73:» 191-92, 201, 2x6-18,
219 and n, 220, 224, 232 and n, 236,
246; country 105, 123, 132, 140
Vangal, Vanga la, country 123, 1 3 1 -33 ,
X34 and n, i35n, i 37 - 4 f>, 190-9

335; dtsa 131-32, 133 and n, I34n,
140, 150

Vahgalavada, locality 134
Vangall, people 139
Vanga-lipi 127

Vahgeya, Vahgeya 36n, 37 and n
Vani-Dindori, territory 155
Vanjula, rwer (Malaya) 59 and n
Vahjula, river (!l^ksa) 55n
Vanjula, river (Sahya) Son
Vahjulavati, river 55n
Vafijura, river 651:1
Vanksu, river 7, 13, 5111
Vanra, priestly community 26111
Vaprakesvara, locality 322
Vara 24; People 39 n
Varada, river 64n, 188
Varadaraja, author 92
Varadatta, officer 275
Varaha, incarnation of Visnu, 163, 277
Varahabhumi, territory 105, 122
Varahachatra, holy place 279
Varahadeva, god 279
Varaha-ksetra, holy place 277, 279-81;
Kokdrnukka 281

VaraJbamihira, author 123, 156, 173x1,
200, 271

Varaha Furdna 65n, 277-79, 306
Varaha-rupa, ^boarform^ 279
V^^x, goddess 88n
Varava?!, city 31, 5on, 80, 107-08,

394

GEOGRAPHY OF AKCaBNT AND MEDIEVAI- INDIA

179-81, 214 and B, 220 and n, 222,
254 s 255n, 319, 333; District 5on,

109

Varanasi-kataka, city 179-80
Varapa, people ^n
varavabJidsa 24
vatdanay vatdhana i59n
Vardhachatra, misprint 279
Vardhamana, town 105, 122-23;

District 105, I22
Vardhamana^ country 262
vardhana 15911
Vardhanakuta, locality 100
Varemdu, wrong text 262
Varendra, country lOO, 105, 122, i3in,
I58n, 163, 260

Varendri, country 122, 163, 294 and n,
295 s 297; mondala 295
Vargujar, tribe 249
Varidhana, people 4cn
Vaiisena, river 6on
Varkala, Varkkalai, locality 92
Varna, territory 293
Varna, river 59n
Varnasa, river 53n
versa 20-21
var^a-parvata i8n
V^taghni, river 53n5 65n
Varuna, deity 1 1 and n, 33 1 and n, 340
Vamna, Varuna, same as Varuna-
dvipa 5n, 22n
Varuna-dvipa 22

Varuna-prastha 80, 87-88, 114, 116
varum 22

Varuni Ocean 2 in, 22
Varunivara-dvipa 22
Varuni-water Ocean 22
Varvara, people and country 30, 34 and
n, 67 and n, 78, 86-87, ii4n, 115,
231? 233, 235; country 1 13-14
Varvaraka, same as Varvara 68n
Vasaka, people 38n
Vasati, people 6g and n
Vasava, deity 67 and n
Vasco da Gama, Portuguese leader 33a
V^ika, people 41 n
V^ikya, wror^ text 4in
Vasis^a-kunda, holy pool 278
V^ifthiputra, metronymic 228-29;

Pujumavi 229; Satakarni 229
vastUy vdstu 314 and n
Vasu, river 56n
V^udeva, Deva chief 157
Vasudeva, Pattndra king 161
Vasuxoitra, officer 275
Vasimdhara, lady 185
VaiSyata, river 59n
VadAdhana, people 32

Vatagiri, kill 324
Vat Phu hill 320
Vatrak, river 53n

Vatsa, people and country 31, 7on/323;
cowtry 254

Vatsagulma, city 186, 188-90, 102-92
Vatsaraja, king 240
Vatsiya, people 4.0.71
Vatsyayana, author 90, 207, 248n
vatthu 314 and n
Vattura, territory 165
vdyavOy ^north-wesf 331 and n
Vayi-grama, Vayi-gramaka, locality
276, 295
Vayu, god 331

V^u Purdna 3n, 9, 18 and n, 2 in, 22n,
26, i68n, 192, igGn, 201, 243= 252,
27on, 27 in, 285 and n, 340 and n,

34 in

Veda, sacred text 288
Veda, wrong text 260
Vedabha, same as Vaidarbha 28, 39n
Veda-dhara, holy stream 277
Veda-parvata 336 and n
Vedarata, river 52n
Veda-saila 336
Vedasini, river 5 in
Vedasmrti, river 5 in, 52 and n, 63,
64x1

Vedavati, river 52 and n
Vedi, wrong text 333 and n, 335, 34in
Vedic — catuh-samudra 9 ; sapta^siridhu
g; literature 3n, 8, 4^11^ passage 287
Vedi-Karusa, wrong text 333
Vedisa, Vedisa, same as VaidiiSa, ci^
264-65, 271
Vegapura, city 52n
Vegavahini, river 56n
veldkula 259
Velapur, locality 194
Vellore, locality 96
Vemkate^a, god 81
Vena, people 34n
Venavarttaka, wrong text 271
Vehgi, city and territory 168-69
Vehgipura, city 258
Vehgi-sahasra, territory 258
Veni, river 5911
Venkata II, king 76
Venkataramanayya, N, I5n, 32 in
Vehkatesa, god 92
Vehkatesvara temple 92
Venumati, river 5 in, 53n
Venva, Venva, river 53n, 58 and n,
59 and n, 64n, 65n
Venya, river 58n, 59n
Verapatha, locality ot pass 72n
Vesali, city 264

Vetrapatha, locality or pass 66n, 730

INDEX 395

Vetrasamkupatha^ locaiity or pass 72
and n

Vetravati, river 53 aodn, 98, ggn,
147, i86j 2065 338 and n
Vettac^a, Vettadhara, locality 7311
Vethali, locality 319
vtbhdsd 301

Vidabha, same as Vidarbba 272
Vidarbha^ country and people 39 and n,
78, 97 andn, 100, 186, 188, i92-93>
262, 2665 304
Vidarbhaj^ river 64n
Vidarbha, same as Vadarbha 262
Vidasinl, river 5 in

Videha, people and country i9"2i, 37
and n, 78, 84, 255n, 226, 323;

country 19, lOi ; Eastern 19; rdjya 322
Vidisa, river 5in, 53 and n
Vidisa^ city qB, 9911, 186, 205-08,
266, 272, 333, 338; nagari 53 n
Vidisha (Bhilm}, town 338; District
333

Vidusa, river 53n

Vidyadiiara, rrythical people 69 and n,
74 and n

Vidyapati, author 222
Vignorla i38n

Vigraha dynasty 174-75, 177

Vigrahapaia il, king 13
Vigrahapala III, king 13
Vigraharaja IV, king 14
mhdra 26 in

Vihekarata-misra, donee 248
Vijaya, city 321-22
Vijaya, prince 170, 21 1, 316 and n,
317, 322, 325
Vijayabahu I, king 170
Vijaya-Dasanapnra, city 185
Vijayanagara, city ii, 76, 91, 96, 192,
246-47; kings II, 76, 96
Vijayananda-suri 270
Vyayanandin, officer 275
Vijayapala, king 290
Vijayapnra, locality 321
Vijayapuri, city 321 and n
Vijayavada, city 244
Vijnanesvara, auii.or 10
Vikrama, person 185
Vikramab^u, king 170
Vikramaditya II, Cdlulya king 187
Vikramaditya VI, Later Cdlukya king^
10, 191 ^

Vikramaditya Gandragupta II, king
ion, i8:>, 207

Vikramdnkadevacattia^ work 191, 210
Vikramapura, city and territory 151,

.153-34, 157-58, 399, 30a

Vikramapura, toum 320
Vikramapura-bbaga 90, 13311

Vikranaa-samvat 168, 256, 257 and
n, 308-09

Vikrampur, territory 133
I Vildsa ySn
Vikuiiithesa, god 8xn
Vilivayakura, king 226n
Vimala 55n, 61 n
Vimdnavatthuy text 73n
Viindliya-iiaiia 83

Vinasana, locality 49n, 2i4n, 303fcand n
Vinayacandra, author 263
Vinayakapala, king 147
Vimyapitaka, text 253n, 269n, 270, 287
Vinayatilaka-grama I33n
Vindhya, mountain 14, 42 and n, 4311,
45 and n, 46n, 56n, 57n, sSn, 59n,
63 and n, 64n, 71 and n, 86, 97-
98, 102, 105-06,109-11, I28n, 129,
2i4n, 27on, 336, 338, 339 and n,
341 and n; mountaneers 70 n; region
sg, 39^7 Jon, 80, 185, 2i3n; pdda
58 and n, 6on; Putha 42, 4511;
st.ila 84; Western 97, 338
Vindby-adri 63 and n
Vindhyamaleya, Vindbyamaiilcya,
people 39n

VindLbyamulastha, people 45n
Vindhyamulika, Vindbyamulika,
Vin^yamuliya, people 39 and n
Vindbyapusika, people 39n
Vindbyasauleya, people 39n
Vindusaras, lake b6n, 67 and n
Vinna, river 58n

Vip^a, Vipasa, river 48n, 49 and n,
5 in, 52n, 55 and n, 65n, 237-38
Viprapala, officer 275
Vipula, mountain i8n
Viracaritay work 304
Viradbaradeva, king 158
Virabotra, same as Vitibotra 44n
Viraja, Yiraja-k§etra 116, 178, 180,
285_

Virarajendra, king 19 in
Viramaru, doubtful text 68n
Viranarasuiiba, king i x
Virata country 83, 86n, 100, 113, 203,
261 ; king 1 12
Virata-nagara 112
Virdi copper-platc inscription 208
Viramitrodaya^ work 22on
Viruobaka, lokapdla 34on
Virupaksa, lokapdla 34on
Visakbapatnam, locality 39n; District
168-69

Visala, scone as Vigraharaja IV 14
Vimala, liver 49n, 5 in
Visamadri, river 59n
vijaya 160

vi§kambha^parvaia i8ni, 23

396

OEOaRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

Visnu, god i6i, 179, 222 and n, 223,
237, 277-79, 284n, 287, 292
Visnudatta, officer 275
Visnu-dkara, holy stream 278
Vtfnudharmottara Purd^a 26, 331, 337
and n, 339

Visnukundin dynasty 168, 244
Visnupada, hill at Gaya 107, 287
Visnupada, holy spot 278
Visnupada on the Vipasa 237
Vi^nu Furdna sn, i8n, 263 243, 272-
73. 285

Vistmsarhkitd 220
Visnu-sarah, holy pool 278
Visnu-tirtha, holy spot 278
Visnuvarman I, Kadamba king 245-46
ViiSva, river 65n
Visvamala, river 58n
Visvarupasena, king 134, 157
Vitahkapura, town 90
Vitasta, river 5n, 8n, 49 and n, 5 in,
52n, 65n, loi, 238; valley 35x1
Vltihotra, clan 44 n
Vivarna, people *ji and n
Vivama, territory 234
vrddhi 267

Vrka, people 3on, 3 in
Vmdavana, locality 87, 115
Vrtraghni, river 32x1^ 53n
Vulture Peak 107
Vyadhapura, locality 320
Vyamkate^a, Vyahkatesa^ god 88, 1 1 5
Vyasa, sage 27
Vyasa-Kasi, holy place 107
Vya^esvara, god 85, 107

Waihind, city 290
Waingahga, river 580
Wakhan, territory 33n, 102
Wang-Hiuen-tse, Chinese general 326
Wardha, river 188
Warren Hastings 190
Wassaf, author 263
Watt 93n

Watters io4n, i6on, 162, i64n, i82n,
i95n, i98n, 2o6n, 286n, 293n, 335n,
33611

Weber 2i4n
Wellesley District 124
WeUhatisen 34n
West Bengal i, 37n, 42n, bsn
Western — Asia 103, 114; Ganga

dynasty 4on; Ghats 14, 32, 59n, 6on,
94, 109, 243-44, 322 j 325, 336-37*
339; India 42n; Ocean 268; Punjab
36n; Sea 236; Vindhyas 54n
Wilayat-i-Bang i58n
Wilford 327-29
WilHams i59n

Wilson 1290, 195

Winternitz, M. 28, 283n, 287n, 288n,
337n

Wright, H. N. 1 8 m
Wu-ch’a, country 178
Wu-chang-na, country 191-92
Wu-she-yen-na, country 207
Wu-to-kia-han-cha, city 293n
Wu-t’u, country 181-82

Xathroi, people 340
Xatigan, town 138
Xiem 66n

Yabhya-desa, wrong text 83n
Yadava dynasty iii, i44n, 194
Yadava tribe 30-31, 44n
Yadavaprakasa, author 26, 201, 210,
289-90

Yadava-Satvata-Vrsni clan 324
Yadu-vamsa 86

Yajapura, Yajapura-nagara 1 78,
180

Yajha Satakarni, king 229
Tdj havalkyasamhitd^ Tdj havalkyasmrtiy
work 10, 285

Yajurvediya Brahmana 246
Yaksa, mythical people 69 and n, 264,
316 and n

Yaksa, mythical territory 23
Yaksab^hu, country 262, 264, 316

Yaksavara, mythical territory 23
Yama, god 331, 340 and n, 341 n
Yamaka, people 37n
Yamakoti, mythical city 261
Yama-prastha 80, 87-88, 114-16
Yamavyasanaka, holy spot 278
Yamuna, river 2, 48n, 49 and n, 5 in,
52n, 64n, 65n, no, 147, 2i3n, 272,
305 and n, 322
Ya’qubi, author 145
Yarkand, territory 66n
Yaska, author 287

Yasodhara, author idgn, 207 and n
Yasodharapura, city 321
Yasodharman, king lo, 208
Yasovarman, king q/*Kanauj 29in, 292,
304, 306

Yasovarman, king of Kambuja 321
Yaudheya, tribe 31
Yaudheyapura, town 253
Yauna, same as Yavana 196
Yauna-Kamboja-Gandhara 1 96
Yava-dvipa 322

Yavana, same as Greek 29, 33, 67 and
n, 78, 196-98, 199 andn, 200 and n,
230-32, 234, 262, 290; dvipa 234
Yavana-Kamboja 196, 231
Yavana-Kamboja-Gandhara 196

INDEX

397

Yayaipura, Yayaipura^ same as Yayati-
pura i8o

Yayapura^ same ^5^ Jajapura 178
Yaydti 179

Yayatij mythical king 200n
Yayati I, kin^ 180 25711,

Yayati III, king 178-80
Yayatinagara, city 178-81, 335
Yayatipura, same as Jajapura i8a
Yayavariya, epithet 303
Td-yi-nisbatl 13911
Yayipura, same as Jajapura 180
Yelamanchili Taluk 169
Yeou-chi-lo, same as Mt. Usira 269
Yi-tsing, author 268-69
Yodheya, same as Yaudheya 2^2-53
Yogirii, Yoginipura, city 84, 87 and n,
104, 1 15

Togim T'antra^ work 93, 161-62

yojaTia 5, 198
Yonaka-rastra 323
Yoni-pltha 93

You-ki, same as Gonandana 265
You-ts’oei, same as Gromardana 265
Yudhisthira, mythical king 6, 172, 216
Yue-ti-yen, same as Uddiyana 182
Yugandhara, clan 30
Yule i38n, 142-43, 22311
Yunnan, territory 322-23
Yuvaraja, Kalacnri king 258

Zaradros, same as iSatadru 4911
Zaranj, city 293n

Zeyatheinkha, same Jayasimha 320
Ziaud-dm Baram, author 157
Zoroastrian community 52n
Zulfiqar ‘All Khan, rider 76, 96
JZunbiX title 2g3n

Addleimda. et Conrigenda

Page

12, line 22. — Read — ^R^putana

13, line 5. — Read — beginning
22, line 3. — Read — Pnskara
26, line 1 1 . — ^Read — RrahTndnda

28, line 16. — ^Read — Suktimanti, Ujjdnaka-maru^ etc.

33, note 3, line 7. — Read — iS-atadruja
37, note 3, line 5. — Read — West
,, note 5, line 9. — Read — Sec. E,

41, note 7, line 2. — Read — c-^Antaranarmaddh.

43, line 2. — ^Read — VaidUds^taihd^

44, note 4, line 7. — Read — According

45, note 6. — Add — Gurgca^ reminds ns of Gurjara,

,, note 7. — Add — Early Greek writers knew tbe form
Karnaprdoarima VoL III, p.

250).

50, note 4, line 8. — Read — Sanskrit
52, note, line 14. — Read — iSatladar
57, note 2, line 7. — Read — Paisuni
62, note 5, line 2. — Read — Snktimat
64, note 6, line 1. — Read — Trisandhyd
70, note 1, line 1. — Read — Al-Biruni
72, note, line 3. — Read — Suvarnabhumi
75. — Under chapter headings read —

77, line 28. — Read — i, for — I

78, line 13. — Read — ^ii, for — II

107, line 15. — Read — Grdbrakuta, for — Grdharakuta

111, line 20 ") *

t — Read — Rachar

112, line 20 J

116, line 2 1 . — Read — Manasesa

128, note 3, line 4. — Read — Kanmtd§~c~awa

1 32, note 6. — ^Read — ^AinA^-Akbarz

161, note 1, line 4. — Read — flourisbed

169, note 1, line 2. — Read — Reitb

181, line 25. — Add note — The name Kataka is, however^
older since the Parikud plates {Rp* Ind*^

400

OEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIVAL INDIA

VoL XI, pp. 281 fF.) of Sailodbhava
Madhyairraraja (middle of the 7tli cen-
tury) speaks of the Kataka-bhakti-visaya.

Page 186, note 4. — Add — which suggests the use of the name

Gauda in the tense of Eastern India.

„ 187, note 4, line 2. — Read — !§ivaraja’s son Govindaraja

is described as the grand-
son

,, 193, line 10. — Read — Krsnabena

,, 209, line 11. — -Read — Malwa

3 , 214, note 3, line 12* — Read — Usira-giri

,, 221, line 33. — Read — Gauri’s

,, 230, line 12, — Read — ^identification

,, 232, line 29. — Add note on '’Kola-pattana ^ — The name
reminds us of Kolaka located by Ptolemy
in the Lower Indus Valley (cf. Sircar,
Cosm. Geog.^ p. 130).

,, 246, line 21. — Read — ^Tamralipta

„ 256, note I — Add — On the basis of epic evidence, Hop-

kings point out that 84 and 88 are con-
ventional numbers p. 55).

,, 258, line 14. — Read — Jabalpur

,, 260, line 23. — Add note on ^Tilanga’^deia ^ — A variant is
Atilangala which reminds us of Lang-
kie-lo (Langala ) located by Hiuen-tsang
in Makran (cf. Sircar, Cosm- Geog.y p.
152). The name Langala is some-
times explained as the ‘T>ate Palm’ cou-
ntry (B. D. Mirchandani in Journ. Ind.
Hist., VoL XLVII, 1969, pp, 237 ff.).

,, 271, note 1, line 8. — Read — ^Parasara’s list {^Cosm.

„ 281, line 10. — Addnote — ^For the installation of imitation

gods, see Sircar, The Sdkta Pithas, p. 15,
referring to Sivaji’s installation of an
imitation image of Bhavani of Tuljapur
(Osmanabad district, Maharashtra) in
his fort at Pratapgadh near Javli (Satara
District, Maharashtra), and Ep. Ind.,
VoL XXVIII, p. 247, to that of Puru-
^ttama-Jagannatha of Puri at Cuttack

ADDKISnDA ET CORRIGENDA

401

by Anangabhima III ri2Il-39 A.I>.);
see also the Skanda Purdna (Nagara-
khanda, 67. 71-72) referring to the
installation of imitation images of the
Sun-god of Mundira^ ELalapriya and
Mulasthana at a place called Hatakes-
vara in the Ahmedabad district.

300, line 2. — Read — Gladwyn’s

306, note 2 — Add — ^The5X:<3nrfi2 Pwr< 2 > 2 a(Nagara-khanda,
Chap. 67 ) speaks of three great images
of the Sun-god, viz. at Mundira in East
India, at Kalapriya in Central India
and at Mulasthana (Multan) in West
India.

314, note 5. — Add — See also I.C. Ghosh, Jdtaka^ Vol.

I, p. 280, and numerous other places
in all the six volumes of the work.

327, note 2. — Add — The Adahdummaga Jdtaka (VI. 299 —
not later than the Gupta age) speaks of
the construction of a wide and big under-
ground tunnel, the walls of which were
beautified with paintings including the re-
presentation of the sides of Mount Sumeru,
the seas and oceans, the four continents,
the Himavat, Lake Anavatapta, Manah-
^ilatala and the six heavens beginning with
the Gaturmaharajika. This suggests the
knowledge of map-like paintings as in the
case of the Uttar ardmacarita*

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